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GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY< 


A  MANUAL  OF  THE  MECHANISM  OF 
GYMNASTIC  MOVEMENTS 


By 

WILLIAM  SKARSTROM,  M.  D. 
t » 

Associate  Professor  of  Physical  Education 
Wellesley  College,  Wellesley,  Mass. 


SECOND  EDITION 


AMERICAN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 
DISTRIBUTING  AGENT 
SPRINGFIELD,  MASS.    . 
1913 


COPYRIGHT,  1909 

By 
WILLIAM  SKARSTROM 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 

The  favorable  reception  accorded  the  first  edition  of  the  manual 
was  most  gratifying.  The  gradual  but  steady  increase  of  its  use 
seems  to  warrant  the  assumption  that  it  is  filling  a  real  want  and 
to  justify  me  in  venturing  the  publication  of  a  second  edition. 

A  number  of  minor  changes  in  phrasing  and  construction  have 
been  made  in  an  endeavor  to  make  the  text  clearer.  But  aside 
from  the  correction  of  a  few  errors,  the  addition  of  three  illustra- 
tions, and  of  three  titles  to  the  bibliography,  no  important  changes 
or  additions  have  been  made. 

Wellesley  College. 

September,  1913. 


PREFACE. 

The  subject-matter  in  the  following  pages  appeared,  substan- 
tially in  its  present  form,  in  the  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  RE- 
VIEW during  1908  and  1909.  This  series  of  articles  was  planned 
with  a  view  to  present,  in  a  non-technical  manner,  the  application 
to  gymnastics  of  generally  known  anatomical  facts  in  conjunction 
with  a  few  elementary  mechanical  principles  more  or  less 
familiar  to  everyone ;  and  also  to  correlate  such  application  with 
certain  fundamental  conceptions  regarding  the  effect  of  dif- 
ferent uses  of  the  motor  organs  on  their  structure  as  well  as  on 
their  functional  power  and  control.  The  larger  part  of  the 
subject-matter,  therefore,  is  devoted  to  the  analysis  of  repre- 
sentative types  of  exercises  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  their 
mechanism  and  determining,  as  far  as  possible,  their  immediate 
and  permanent  effects  or  tendencies.  The  aim  was  to  establish  in 
this  way  a  basis  for  estimating  the  value  or  effectiveness  of  dif- 
ferent styles  of  gymnastic  work  as  regards  posture  and  motor 
education,  and  in  general  to  influence  gymnastic  teaching  in  the 
direction  of  greater  definiteness  of  purpose,  choice  of  material 
and  procedure. 

In  discussing  the  mechanism  of  movements  uniformity  of 
conception  and  execution  is  assumed.  But  definitions  are  some- 
times inadequate  to  insure  this  in  all  details,  and  therefore  the 
mechanism  as  stated  may  be  at  variance  with  the  results  of 


iv  PREFACE 

another's  observation.  In  the  analysis  of  the  exercises  and  in 
attempting  to  establish  certain  principles  or  criteria  for  their  selec- 
tion and  definition,  it  is  not  always  possible  (at  present)  to  prove 
the  points  made  by  scientific  demonstration.  In  many  cases, 
however,  this  is  hardly  necessary,  careful  visual  or  tactile  obser- 
vation being  sufficient  to  establish  the  main  features.  Where  this 
fails  or  is  unreliable,  recourse  must  be  had  solely  to  reasoning 
from  a  few  known  facts  or  from  analogy,  and  the  truth  or  error 
of  such  reasoning  must  be  tested  by  experience.  In  such  cases 
the  conclusions  are  necessarily  tentative.  While  personal  experi- 
ence or  observation  makes  me  feel  fairly  confident  regarding 
some  conclusions  or  claims  made  without  adducing  sufficient 
proof,  I  recognize  that  there  is  room  for  difference  of  opinion  and 
wish  to  disclaim  any  assumption  of  finality  of  judgment,  even  if 
the  text  at  times  seems  to  imply  this.  My  inclination  would  have 
led  me  to  wait  until  more  facts  could  have  been  established 
before  attempting  to  write  upon  this  subject.  But  the  scarcity  of 
the  literature  dealing  with  it,  especially  in  English,  and  the  lack 
(at  the  time  these  articles  were  begun)  of  any  work  of  this  kind 
having  a  direct  bearing  on  gymnastics,  encouraged  the  hope  that 
even  a  tentative,  elementary  treatment  might  be  of  some  use  to 
teachers  and  students  of  physical  education. 

I  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  the  kind  help  given  me  by 
Dr.  G.  L.  Meylan  in  preparing  the  photographs  used  for  the 
illustrations  and  by  Mr.  A.  I.  Prettyman  in  the  preparation  of 
some  of  the  line  drawings.  To  Dr.  C.  J.  Enebuske  and  the  Boston 
Normal  School  of  Gymnastics  I  shall  always  be  indebted  for 
having  my  interest  in  the  subject  aroused,  for,  receiving  my  first 
instruction  in  it  as  well  as  inspiration  to  further  study  and  obser- 
vation. This  interest  has  been  kept  alive  and  stimulated  by 
profitable  discussions  with  Drs.  L.  Collin,  Theodore  Hough,  J.  H. 
McCurdy,  G.  L.  Meylan,  L.  H.  Gulick  and  others.  Finally,  to  the 
faithful  efforts  and  intelligent  questionings  of  normal  students 
at  Chautauqua  and  Columbia  Summer  Schools  and  at  Teachers 
College,  I  owe  the  clearing  up  of  many  puzzling  problems  in 
Gymnastic  Kinesiology. 

Columbia  University. 
June  1,  1909. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


PREFACE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

THE  DISTINCTIVE  FEATURES  OF  GYMNASTICS,  AS  COMPARED  WITH  DANC- 
ING, GAMES  AND  ATHLETICS. 

UPPER  TRUNK  AND   SHOULDER  REGION. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  TRUNK  MOVEMENTS. 
ANATOMICAL  REVIEW. 

GENERAL    PRINCIPLES — Gravity,    Inertia.    Obliquity    of    Muscular    Pull, 
Internal  Resistance,  Leverage,  Functional  Classification  of  Muscles. 
GYMNASTIC  MOVEMENTS. 

A.    Free-standing  Arching,   Back,  Arm   and  Shoulder  Blade  Move- 
ments. 

B.'   Suspension  Exercises. 

c.     Exercises  Involving  Support  on  the  Arms. 

D.     Swimming,  Rowing,  Paddling,  Throwing. 

LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION. 

THE  NEED  AND  VALUE  OF  MOTOR  TRAINING  IN  THIS  REGION. 

ANATOMICAL  REVIEW. 

GYMNASTIC  MOVEMENTS  AND  POSITIONS. 

A.  Different   Types  of  Standing  Position. 

B.  Foot  Placings  and  Knee  Bendings. 
c.     Charges  and  Back  Exercises. 

D.  Abdominal  Exercises. 

E.  Lateral  Trunk  Exercises;  Locomotion. 

SUMMARY. 

1.  Definiteness  of  Gymnastic  Exercises. 

2.  Localization   of  Movement. 

3.  Localisation  of  Muscular  Contraction. 

4.  Fixation. 

5.  The  Supporting  Function  of  Muscles. 

LITERATURE. 
INDEX. 


GYMNASTIC    KINESIOLOGY. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  DISTINCTIVE  FEATURES  OF  GYMNASTICS,  AS  COMPARED  WITH 
DANCING,  GAMES  AND  ATHLETICS. 

The  procedures  used  as  means  of  physical  education  may  be 
grouped  under  the  following  heads /Barnes  and  athletics ;  dancing 
and  gymnastics.  The  first  two  are  largely  objective  in  their 
nature,  involving  bodily  action  and  control  with  reference  to 
something  outside  the  individual.  Such  bodily  action  is  usually 
measured  or  judged  according  to  results  produced  on  some  object, 
such  as  a  ball,  a  hammer,  the  point  of  a  foil,  the  body  of  an  antag- 
onist ;  or  it  may  be  measured  in  terms  of  time  or  space,  either 
absolutely  or  as  compared  with  some  other  individual.  In  any 
case,  the  attention  of  the  performer  is  fixed,  not  on  himself,  but 
on  something  outside  of  himself.  His  immediate  object  is  to 
execute  movements  requiring  often  skill  and  delicate  adjustment, 
usually  great  intensity  of  effort,  or  else  endurance;  and  all  this, 
not  for  the  sake  of  the  movements  themselves — for  their  aesthetic, 
physiological  or  other  effects — but  for  the  sake  of  obtaining  some 
objective  result.  flis  satisfaction  consists,  for  example,  in  being 
able  to  propel  himself  farther  or  faster  through  space  than  the 
next  man;  to  elude  a  pursuer;  to  place -an  object  where  his  oppo- 
nents cannot  catch  it,  as  in  baseball,  handball,  etc.,  or  where  it  will 
do  the  greatest  amount  of  execution,  as  in  bowling  and  boxing. 
He  does  not  care,  at  least  for  the  time  being,  whether  such  move- 
ments are,  per  se,  injurious  or  beneficial,  graceful  or  otherwise, 
as  long  as  they  accomplish  his  purpose.  Instances  are  not  lacking 
where  even  life  or  death  did  not  matter,  although  the  issue  was 
merely  friendly  rivalry. 

x  Dancing  and  gymnastics,  on  the  other  hand,  are  largely  sub- 
jective  in  character.  Here  the  bodily  action  and  control  have 
reference  to  the  individual  himself,  to  the  relation  of  the  parts  of 
his  body  to  each  other,  and  to  the  immediate  or  remote  aesthetic, 
physiological  or  anatomical  effects  produced  by  the  move- 
ments. Hence  the  movements  and  positions  are  made  to  conform 
to  some  arbitrary  standard,  not  readily  measured  or  expressed  in 
terms  of  time  and  space,  absolute  or  relative,  but  judged  by  the 


2  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

individual  himself  or  the  onlooker  according  to  the  closeness  of 
conformity  to  this  standard.  The  latter  may  be  merely  an 
abstract  idea  based  on  aesthetic  conceptions,  or  it  may  be  based 
"on  anatomical  or  physiological  knowledge.  It  is  the  "form," 
"style,"  "grace"  or  whatever  term  we  may  use,  that  counts. 
The  attention  is  always  on  the  individual  himself,  or  on  some 
accessory  which  for  the  time  being  may  be  considered  a  part  of 
himself,  such  as  dress  or  drapery  in  dancing;  clubs,  wands  and 
other  paraphernalia  in  gymnastics.  The  individual's  satisfaction 
is  not  dependent  on  the  accomplishment  of  some  result  external  to 
himself,  but  on  his  ability  to  move  the  parts  of  his  body,  or  his 
body  as  a  whole,  in  certain  rhythm,  through  or  to  certain  attitudes 
or  positions,  requiring  always  precision,  often  speed,  occasionally 
endurance.  Sometimes  external  objects  may  be  involved,  as  in 
the  case  of  fixed  gymnastic  apparatus,  but  the  performer's  efforts 
are  not  directed  toward  these ;  they  simply  serve  as  points  of 
support  or  fulcra  to  influence  his  own  movements,  to  increase 
their  scope,  difficulty,  variety;  enabling  him  to  check,  increase, 
or  change  the  direction  of  his  momentum,  to  distribute  the  work 
in  varying  proportions  to  different  parts  of  his  body,  etc. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  draw  the  line  between  the  two  kinds, 
as  many  forms  of  activity  involve  both  of  the  principles  men- 
tioned, or  may  be  made  to  do  so.  For  example,  competitive 
jumping  may  be  made  to  include  certain  details  of  form  or 
style,  such  as  position  of  the  body  while  in  the  air,  when  landing, 
or  leaving  the  ground.  Similar  details  may*  be  included  in  the 
rules  of  many  games  and  sports.  Again,  gymnastics  and  dancing 
may  be  made  competitive  and  so  in  a  sense  become  objective,  but 
only  secondarily.  In  any  such  combination  of  the  two  elements 
the  primary  distinction  would  always  remain. 

The  effects  on  the  individual  of  these  types  of  activity  are  in 
some  respects  similar,  in  other  respects  not.  The  differences  are 
of  kind,  as  well  as  of  quality  and  degree.  That  this  is  the  case, 
and  of  considerable  importance,  is  becoming  increasingly  recog- 
nized, at  least  by  the  profession.  In  the  minds  of  the  laity  there 
is  still  much  confusion  on  this  subject,  and  one  kind  is  usually 
considered  equivalent  to  another.  In  such  cases  the  similarities 
only  are  perceived,  namely  the  immediate,  obvious  organic  effects 
of  muscular  exercise.  Where  differences  are  recognized,  they 
are  often  of  an  incidental  kind,  such  as  the  opportunities,  or  lack 
of  them,  for  getting  fresh  air;  the  element  of  pleasure  or  pre- 
dilection, etc.;  or  they  may  be  merely  popular  notions  regarding 
the  hygienic,  or  developmental  and  "muscle  building"  power  of 
each. 

The  general  organic  effects  of  muscular  exercise  are  of  course 
common  to  all  kinds  of  bodily  activity,  varying  in  intensity  and 


INTRODUCTION  3 

amount  according  to  the  kind,  vigor,  duration,  continuity  and 
distribution  of  the  work.  The  same  is  true,  in  a  general  way 
and  with  the  same  qualifications,  as  regards  muscular  develop- 
ment. In  gymnastics,  however,  wej-an  more  readily  sH^rt  the! 
kind,  gauge  the  duration  and  intensity,  and  control__the  localiza-^S 
tion  and  distribution  of  the  work,  and  therefore^more  effectively  I 
determine  the  character  and  direction  of  jjift  development.  Here 
lies,  in  fact,  one  of  the  main  differences  between  the  two  types. 
In  games  and  athletics  the  work  is  instinctively  (and  purposely 
sometimes)  done  in  the  easiest  way,  by  many  muscular  groups, 
and  those  the  strongest,  regardless  of  postural  effects,  if  only 
the  mechanical  conditions  can  be  made  more  favorable  for  im- 
mediate purposes.  Left  to  the  individual's  own  (or  the  coach's) 
selection,  as  is  usually  the  case,  such  forms  of  activity  are  chosen 
as  are  best  adapted  to  his  own  peculiarities  of  physique  and 
which  therefore  promise  greatest  likelihood  of  immediate  success. 
Motor  and  postural  habits  already  acquired  thus  tend  to  become 
more  fixed,  and  the  chances  for  an  even,  all-around  development 
are  diminished.  In  gymnastics  (of  the  right  kind)  the  conditions 
are  reversed.  The  efforts  are  here  directed  toward  equalization- 
of  development*  and  the  formation  of  good  habits  of  movement 
and  carriage.  This  is  accomplished  by  well-defined,  localized 
movements,  in  which  the  weaker  muscles  are  brought  into  power- 
ful, quick,  or  sustained  action,  and  a  forced  erect  position  is  main- 
tained throughout. 

Another  respect  in  which  the  effects  of  the  two  types  of  work 
differ  is  in  the  kind  of  bodily  control  cultivated  by  each.  In  games 
and  athletics  the  individual  is  constantly  called  upon  to  meet  a 
variety  of  situations  requiring  quick  perception  and  judgment,  and 
demanding  muscular  efforts  of  varying  intensity  and  adjustment 
according  to  the  needs  of  the  moment.  The  ability  to  judge 
quickly  and  accurately  the  distance,  speed  and  direction  of  moving 
objects  and  to  adjust  the  muscular  efforts  relative  to  these  is  often 
a  marked  feature.  The  motor  control  resulting  from  this  kind  of 
work  is  one  which  enables  the  individual  to  meet  special  classes 
of  situations :  special,  skill,  sometimes  very  limited  in  scope,  as  in 
a  standing  broad  jump,  or  in  the  shot  put ;  sometimes  very  varied, 
as  in  basket  ball  or  boxing.  The  more  numerous  and  different 
the  games  or  sports  in  which  the  individual  engages,  the  greater 
becomes  his  fund  of  reflex  or  automatic  coordinations,  his  power 
of  adaptation,  in  a  word,  his  physical  efficiency.  Let  us  for  the 
present  call  this  kind  of  control  objective.  Its  value  is  obvious 
and  would  alone  ^ justify  the  giving  of  athletics  and  games  a 

*This  term  is  not  intended  to  apply  to  minor  details  of  measurement  of  the  two  sides 
of  the  body,  but  is  used  in  a  more  general  sense  applying  to  all  parts. 


4  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

prominent  place  in  any  "comprehensive  scheme  of  physical  edu- 
cation. The  moral  and  social  training  is  of  course  of  even  greater 
importance,  but  that  does  not  come  within  the  scope  and  purpose 
of  this  discussion. 

The  motor  control  cultivated  by  dancing  and  gymnastics  is, 
like  the  work,  of  a  subjective  kind.  It  does  not  directly  make 
the  individual  more  efficient  as  regards  influencing  external 
objects,  but  it  does  mean  ability  to  manage  himself.  It  means, 
among  other  things,  a  better  sense  of  equilibrium,  increased  power 
of  adjustment  to  situations  in  which  change  of  base  or  support 
are  frequent  and  marked  features.  It  includes,  usually,  ability 
to  judge  and  manage  his  own  momentum  to  best  advantage.  The 
posture  sense,  too,  is  cultivated,  and  on  this  depends,  to  a  great 
extent,  ability  to  assume  and  maintain  a  good  carriage.  Of 
course,  the  proper  structural  relations  and  muscular  tone  are  also 
essential  factors  in  this,  but  as  already  suggested,  and  as  will  be 
shown  more  clearly  later,  gymnastics  are  more  effective  in  pro- 
ducing this  than  is  any  other  kind  of  work.  The  ability  to  make 
precise,  speedy  and  powerful  localized  movements7*which  forms 
the  basis  of  so  many  kinds  of  specialized  skill,  and  which  is  an 
important  element  in  all  effective  and  economical  action,  is  de- 
manded and  acquired  by  well-defined,  clean-cut,  gymnastic  exer- 
cises. In  dancing,  some  of  these  elements  are  present  to  a  greater 
or  less  extent.  Besides,  there  is  required  a  nicety  in  the  adjust- 
ment of  effort,  in  the  shifting  and  redistribution  of  the  body 
weight,  in  the  smooth  sequence  and  blending  of  movements  of 
rhythmical  alternation  and  recurrence,  which  is  bound  to  increase 
the  power  of  coordination,  to  train  the  sense  of  rhythm,  to  elimi- 
nate stiffness,  jerkiness  and  awkwardness  of  movement,  and  the 
self-consciousness  that  is  both  a  cause  and  an  effect,  thereby 
enabling  the  individual  to  manage  himself  to  better  advantage  in 
the  ordinary  movements  of  daily  life.  This  kind  of  control  might 
be  called  subjective.  It  is  often  expressed  in  such  terms  as 
grace,  bearing,  presence,  etc.,  and  is  probably  of  more  importance 
in  the  social  relations  of  life  (and  perhaps  in  business  too)  than 
we  are  apt  to  think.  Mnch-&f-it  is.  of  course,  acquired  uncon- 
sciously  under  favorable  home  and  social  conditions  in  early 
HfeTbTit  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  need  of  training  in  this  respect 
still  remains  fairly  general,  and  that  it  is  one  of  the  legitimate 
functions  of  physical  education  to  meet  this  need.  A  cultivation 
of  subjective  control  is  of  advantage,  also,  as  a  preliminary  to, 
and  a  basis  for,  the  objective  training  obtained  by  a  practice  of 
games  and  athletics.  The  two  should  go  hand  in  hand,  each  sup- 
plementing and  balancing  the  other.  Perhaps  there  is  no  funda- 
mental difference  between  objective  and  subjective  control,  the 
former  being  simply  the  ability  to  apply  the  latter  in  various 


INTRODUCTION  5 

directions.  Here,  as  everywhere,  it  is  difficult  to  draw  hard  and 
fast  lines.  But  those  who  have  had  occasion  to  observe  and 
inquire  into  the  physical  characteristics  of  great  numbers  of 
youths  and  adults  cannot  have  failed  to  -notice  the  frequent 
occurrence  of  cases  in  which  the  one  or  the  other  type  of  control 
seemed  to  predominate,  and  the  corresponding  difference  in  the 
kinds  of  activity  which  represented  the  physical  training  of  the 
individuals. ~ 

If  it  be  true,  in  a  general  way,  that  games  and  athletics  are 
conducive  to  objective  efficiency,  gymnastics  and  dancing  to  sub- 
jective harmony — and  I  think  the  experience  of  teachers  of 
physical  education  will  bear  it  out — it  next  becomes  of  interest 
to  inquire  into  the  effectiveness  of  particular  types  of  each,  the 
principles  underlying  selection,  methods  of  procedure,  manage- 
ment and  teaching  which  would  produce  the  most  rapid  and 
permanent  results.  The  magnitude  of  such  an  inquiry  necessi- 
tates division  of  the  subject  and  even  limitation  to  certain  topics 
within  each  division.  Our  study  will,  therefore,  be  confined 
largely  to  gymnastics,  and  even  in  this  limited  field  only  certain 
phases  will  be  discussed  in  detail,  chiefly  those  of  a  technical 
character,  relating  to  the  definition  and  mechanism  of  movements 
and  positions,  and  to  their  correct  execution. 

Gymnastics,  it  is  generally  conceded,  constitute  one  of  the  most 
effective  means  of  correcting  minor  defects  of  development  and 
faulty  structural  relations  resulting  from  the  unfavorable  influ-  v 
ences   of  modern  conditions   of   life.     When   applied   to  grow- 
ing individuals,  this   statement  might  be  put  in  positive   form  I 
.by  saying  that  gymnastics  most  effectively  conduce  to  normal  S 
growth  and  development.    They  counteract  the  pernicious  effects    I 
of^sedentary,  school-desk  life,  they  offset  and  supplement  the     \ 
unequal  and  partial  activity  of  daily  life  as  well  as  of  games  and      \ 
athletics.     But  the  great  value  of  gymnastics,  especially  when 
supplemented  by  dancing,  in  the  cultivation  of  subjective  control, 
is  not  so  generally  appreciated.     Nor  are  the  differences  between 
these  two  kinds  of  subjective  activity  always  clearly  understood. 

Gymnastics  an^  dancing  are  closely  related,  fundamentally,  and 
are  often  combined  in  varying  proportions  while  being  called  one 
or  the  other.  In  dancing  the  movements  are  always  continuous 
and  rhythmical,  they  are  less  localized,  less  sharply  defined  than 
gymnastic  movements;  they  involve  blended  but  partial  action 
of  a  great  number  of  joints  and  muscles  rather  than  complete, 
powerful  action  of  a  few.  In  gymnastics  the  movements  are 
usually  not  continuous,  but  consist  of  a  series  of  changes  of 
position,  each  position  being  clearly  defined  and  held  a  varying 
length  of~time.  While  gymnastics  may  be  rhythmical  it  is 
not  of  advantage  to  have  the  rhythm  even  and  uniform.  This 


6  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

tends  irresistibly  to  make  the  movements  lose  in  vigor  and  com- 
pleteness, and  therefore  in  their  own  distinctive  effectiveness. 
In  gymnastics,  as  in  everything  else,  it  is  better  to  aim  at  powerful 
and  rapid  effects  in  a  few  directions,  rather  than  partial,  mediocre 
results  in  many.  Gymnastics  are  specialized,  artificial  forms  of 
activity,  capable  of  being  taught  fry  logical  and  intensivejTiethods. 
and  of  producing  satisfactory  results  in  the  way  of  harmonious 
Hpyfilnptjipntj  improved  posture  and  increased  speed,  accuracy 
and  power  of  motor  adjustment.  But  this  cannot  be  reasonably 
expected  if  the  exercises  constituting  the  gymnastic  lesson  do 
not  call  for  this  kind  of  action,  or  if  they  do  so  nominally, 
are  arranged,  combined  and  taught  in  such  a  way  as  to  defeat 
their  own  objects,  or  at  least  reduce  their  effectiveness  to  a 
minimum.  For  example,  if  slow  and  partial,  or  very  complex 
'movements  of  one  part  of  the  body,  say  the  trunk,  are  combined 
with  what  is  intended  to  be  quick,  vigorous  and  complete  move- 
ments of  another  part,  say  the  arms  and  shoulders,  the  latter 
will  inevitably  assume  the  character  of  the  former,  and  so  amount 
to  very  little  from  any  point  of  view.  The  greater  the  complexity 
of  the  movements,  relative  to  the  ability  of  the  individual  or 
class,  the  smaller  are  the  chances  for  effective  execution.  This 
will  also  be  the  case  if  all  kinds  of  movements  are  made  to  con- 
form to  a  uniform,  even  rhythm,  and  especially  if  accompanied  by 
soothing,  dreamy  music,  or  worse  yet,  by  a  featureless,  mechanical 
hammering  on  a  piano.  The  work  then  really  becomes  dancing, 
but  dancing  of  an  inferior  grade,  such  as  would  be  scorned  and 
repudiated  by  any  good  teacher  of  dancing.  As  gymnastics 
it  has  chiefly  the  value  of  gentle  exercise.  ,When  this  is  the 
main  object  sought,  such  work  may  be  defended,  and  there 
are  doubtless  conditions — aside  from  classes  of  small  children, 
where  it  may  be  perfectly  legitimate — under  which  no  other 
kind  of  work  would  be  feasible.  This  might,  for  example,  be 
the  case  with  classes  of  working  women,  at  least  to  begin  with. 
But  such  conditions  are  probably  not  as  numerous,  or  at  least 
as  permanent,  as  is  often  supposed.  This  style  of  work  is, 
however,  apt  to  please  the  pupils,  at  least  for  a  time ;  and  it  makes 
teaching  comfortable  and  easy.  It  may  be  compared  to  methods 
of  teaching  children  language  symbols  and  elementary  numbers 
by  incorporating  them  in  games,  songs  and  rhymes ;  or  to  some 
conceivable  method  of  teaching  grammar  and  arithmetic  through 
forms  expressed  in  terms  of  poetry  and  music.  Gymnastics  of 
this  type  lose  most  of  their  distinctive  features.  The  movements 
are  done  in  the  easiest  manner,  are  incomplete  and  vague,  usually 
listless  or  else  oscillatory,  i.e.,  the  terminal  and  intermediate 
positions  are  not  sufficiently  marked.  Opportunities  for  correc- 
tion by  the  teacher  are  thus  lost,  and  the  pupils  are  encour- 


INTRODUCTION  7 

aged  to  form  habits  of  looseness  of  conception  as  well  as  of  ) 
execution.  Most  teachers  have  had  the  experience  of  being  told 
by  a  prospective  pupil  that  he  or  she  has  had  gymnastic  training 
so  and  so  long,  and  is  quite  familiar  with  the  work,  while  even  the 
most  casual  observation  of  the  pupil's  motor  or  postural  habits, 
and  the  quality  of  his  subsequent  work,  seem  utterly  to  contradict 
this,  or  to  suggest  that  the  work  previously  done  had  been  of  a 
character  which  failed  to  produce  those  effects 'which  gymnastics 
stand  for.  Analogies  to  this  in  other  fields  are  only  too  numerous, 
the  most  common,  perhaps,  being  language.  Again,  many  people 
lose  faith  in  the  effectiveness  of  gymnastics,  because  they  have 
found  for  themselves  that  years  of  honest  but  misdirected  efforts 
have  failed  to  do  for  them  what  they  had  been  led  to  expect.  This 
may  of  course  be  explained  partly  by  the  tendency  of  some 
teachers  to  make  excessive  claims  for  something  about  which  they 
have  more  faith  and  enthusiasm  than  detailed  knowledge,  partly 
by  popular  misconceptions  about  the  whole  subject.  The  latter 
was  well  illustrated  recently  by  the  reply  of  the  sporting  editor 
of  a  newspaper  to  a  query  sent  in  by  a  young  man  regarding  the 
best  way  to  improve  round  shoulders.  "Join  a  gym,  work  hard  at 
dumbbells,  chest  weights,  rowing  machines,  boxing  and  handball." 
While  it  is  perfectly  legitimate  and  desirable,  whenever  feasible, 
to  give  in  each  gymnastic  lesson  some  work  in  the  nature  of 
dancing,  games  or  athletics  to  supplement  the  gymnastics,  it  is 
well  to  make  each  distinct  from  the  other,  not  only  by  name  and 
place  in  the  lesson,  but  also  by  the  character  of  the  work  itself, 
and  by  the  method  of  teaching  it.'  Let  the  gymnastic  exercises 
stand  out  in  contrast  to  the  others  by  being  "clean-cut,"  definite 
in  type,  simple  and  localized  rather  than  complex  and  general,  or,  ^ 
if  relatively  complex,  capable  of  analysis,  of  being  resolved  into 
simple  component  parts,  each  of  which  is  marked  or  punctuated, 
so  to  speak,  by  a  sharply  defined  position.  And  insist,  by  all  the 
resources  of  the  art  of  teaching,  on  accurate  execution  of  the 
movements  and  on  at  least  a  momentary  maintenance  of  the  inter- 
mediate and  terminal  positions.  Define  the  exercises  in  a  way 
to  induce  completeness  of  movement  in  a  small  number  of  joints, 
and  in  directions  which  are  neglected  in  the  ordinary  move- 
ments of  daily  life  and  even  in  most  games  and  athletics,  and  in 
which,  therefore,  mobility  tends  to  become  diminished.  This  will 
of  course  mean  complete  and  powerful  contraction  of  the  muscles 
on  that  side  of  the  joints.  These  muscles,  because  seldom  used 
in  that  way,  are  apt  to  be  deficient  in  development  or  tone,  or  both. 
At  the  same  time  the  opposite  structures,  muscular  and  fibrous, 
which  offer  resistance  to  completeness  of  movement,  will  be 
subjected  to  strong  tension.  Furthermore,  the  effort  to  localize 
the  movement,  i.e.,  to  move  as  much  as  possible  in  ctfl^  place  and  . 


8  .   GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

as  little  as  possible  elsewhere,  will  bring  into  tonic  or  static  action 
many  other  muscles  in  order  to  keep  other  parts  from  moving. 
When  "other  parts"  include  the  trunk  or  shoulder  blades  (and  that 
is  very  often  the  case),  the  muscles  responsible  for  the  proper 
posture  of  these  parts  are  given  valuable  training  in  endurance 
and  control,  a  training  particularly  well  adapted  to  their  special 
function,  that  of  support.  This  is  of  as  much  importance  as 
their  increase  in  size  and  strength,  which  determines  their  effi- 
ciency as  purely  motor  organs. 

A  practice  of  well-defined,  localized  movements,  is,  in  the  long 
run,  conducive  to  economical  motor  habits  by  increasing  the  indi- 
vidual's power  of  localized  muscular  contraction.  This  implies  a 
saving,  not  only  in  the  number  of  muscles  needed  to  produce  a 
given  movement,  but  also  of  the  number  needed  to  prevent 
movement  elsewhere.  In  other  words,  the  inhibition  of  move- 
ment becomes  more  and  more  a  central,  instead  of  a  peripheral 
process,  a  matter  of  reflex,  rather  than  voluntary  attention.  In 
practice  this  should  not  occur  to  any  considerable  extent,  as  it 
is  desirable  to  have  the  total  amount  of  muscular  work  as  great 
as  possible.  It  need  not  occur  if  the  selection  and  progression 
of  the  exercises  are  such  as  to  make  them  always  sufficiently 
difficult  and  severe,  no  matter  how  far  advanced  the  pupils  may 
be. 

By  making  the  majority  of  the  gymnastic  exercises  as  speedy  as 
is  consistent  with  their  nature  and  mechanism,  and  by  doing  at 
least  a  part  of  the  work  to  the  word  of  command,  habits  of  quick 
and  accurate  motor  response  to  given  situations  are  formed. 
These  become  multiplied  and  more  firmly  fixed  ^by  application  in 
games  and  athletics,  improving  the  quality  of  the  latter,  and  so 
increasing  the  gain  in  objective  as  well  as  subjective  control. 

In  gymnastic  apparatus  work,  especially  in  such  exercises  as 
jumping,  vaulting,  climbing,  a  kind  of  subjective  control  is  culti- 
vated which  is  usually  expressed  by  the  term  agility.  This 
implies  ability  to  manage  the  bodily  momentum,  when  on  the  feet, 
when  suspended  on  or  supported  by  the  arms;  or  a  combination 
of  these.  This  is  a  large  element  in  physical  efficiency.  Gym- 
nastics of  this  kind  are  very  closely  related  to  athletics,  the  dif- 
ference being,  as  already  pointed  out,  that  in  corresponding  types 
of  athletic  competition  "the  form"  (position  of  body,  etc.)  is 
of  no  special  significance,  except  as  it  facilitates  the  performance 
of  a  particular  feat,  whereas  in  gymnastics  it  is  the  principal 
thing  and  should  never  be  lost  sight  of.  In  gymnastic  work  of 
this  kind  the  variety  may  be  made  much  greater  and  the  progres- 
sion finer  than  in  athletics.  This  leads  to  greater  versatility  and 
range  of  control. 

The  effectiveness  of  gymnastics  in  the  directions  indicated  will 


INTRODUCTION  9 

then  depend  on  the  style  of  exercises  taught,  and  this  in  turn  on 
the  teacher's  conception  of  the  objects  of  the  work,  his  ideals  and 
standards,  and  his  ability  to  present  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  elicit  the 
greatest  amount  of  cooperation  from  his  pupils.  As  a  basis  for 
all  this  an  understanding  of  the  physiological  effects  and  the 
anatomical  mechanism  of  the  exercises  is  essential.  The  former 
will  guide  him  in  determining  the  amount,  duration  and  intensity 
of  the  work,  the  latter  in  the  selection,  definition,  arrangement 
and  progression  of  the  exercises.  Both  are  needed  for  an  intel- 
ligent appreciation  of  the  needs  of  the  individual  or  class,  for  a 
judicious  choice  of  the  means,  and  for  a  proper  estimate  of  what 
may  be  accomplished. 

The  following  chapters  will  be  devoted  to  a  study  of  the 
anatomical  mechanism  of  the  most  common  and  representative 
types  of  gymnastic  movements  and  positions. 


A.     UPPER  TRUNK  AND   SHOULDER  REGION. 


Importance  of  trunk  movements.  In  the  introductory  part  an 
effort  was  made  to  point  out  the  place  of  gymnastics  in  a  compre- 
hensive scheme  of  physical  training,  and  particularly  the  effec- 
tiveness of  systematic,  well-defined,  accurately  executed  gymnas- 
tic movements  in  equalizing  growth  and  development,  and  in  culti- 
vating that  kind  of  subjective  control  on  which  erect  carriage, 
agility  and  efficient,  economical  motor  habits  depend.  Of  such 
gymnastic  exercises,  the  most  important  are  those  involving  the 
trunk,  shoulder  and  hip  regions.  The  relations  of  the  bony  and 
fibrous  structures  of  these  parts ;  the  strength,  tone,  endurance  and 
control  of  their  muscles  obtained  through  the  proper  and  regular 
exercise  of  those  muscles,  determine  largely  the  results  we  may 
expect  in  the  directions  indicated.  Biologists  and  psychologists 
are  pretty  well  agreed  on  the  fundamental  character  of  such 
trunk  movements,  and  on  the  importance  of  their  early  cultiva- 
tion in  relation  to  normal  growth  and  development,  not  only  of 
the  osseous  and  muscular  systems  of  the  trunk,  but  also  of  the 
great  vital  organs  contained  in  it.  Besides,  as  Tyler  has  so 
clearly  pointed  out,  the  proper  development  of  the  fundamental 
brain  centers,  and  indirectly  of  the  whole  central  nervous  system, 
is  intimately  connected  with  and  dependent  on  abundant  and 
varied  activity,  in  early  life,  of  the  large  muscles  in  these  regions.* 
During  the  later  stages  of  the  developmental  period  the  continued 
cultivation  of  these  central  and  fundamental  neuromuscular 
mechanisms  is  conducive  to  a  more  complex  and  finer  motor 
control,  thus  increasing  the  individual's  power  of  adapting  him- 
self to  his  environment.  This  is  done  by  gradually  demanding 
more  definiteness,  finer  "shades"  of  distinction,  more  accurate 
localization,  greater  variations  of  speed,  etc.,  in  the  same  trunk, 
shoulder  and  hip  movements.  In  this  way  new  paths  of  motor 
associations  are  opened  up,  new,  or  at  least  clearer,  motor  ideas 
are  formed,  finer  motor  ideals  are  established,  and  a  more  com- 
plete realization  of  latent  possibilities  of  muscular  coordination 
is  attained.  Finally,  the  purely  physiological  effects  of  trunk 
movements  are  of  primary  and  equal  importance,  in  the  main- 
tenance of  health  and  organic  vigor,  from  childhood  to  old  age. 

In  discussing  the  anatomical  mechanism  of  the  gymnastic 
movements  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  analyze  them  with  mathe- 
matical accuracy,  or  in  terms  of  mechanics.  The  principal  aim 
will  be  to  show  how,  by  apparently  small  variations  of  definition 

*J.  M.  Tyler,  Growth  and  Education. 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  11 

and  execution,  the  character  of  the  movements  may  be  consider- 
ably modified,  and  their  effectiveness  enhanced  or  diminished. 

ANATOMY 1.       JOINTS    AND    MOVEMENTS. 

To  begin  with,  it  will  perhaps  be  helpful  to  review  briefly  some 
of  the  most  important  anatomical  facts  having  a  bearing  on  the 
kind  and  range  of  movement  in  the  joints  of  the  regions  to  be 
considered,  and  the  muscles  producing  or  modifying  these  move- 
ments. 

The  bony  framework  of  the  trunk  consists  of:  (1)  the  spinal 
column,  forming  its  main  support  and  sustaining  the  weight  of 
the  head,  shoulders  and  thorax;  (2)  the  thorax,  a  bony-carti- 
laginous cage,  consisting  of  the  ribs,  articulating  in  front,  by  their 
cartilages,  with  the  .sternum,  and  behind,  directly,  with  the 
thoracic  spine;  (3)  the  shoulder  girdle,  an  incomplete  bony  ring 
formed  by  the  clavicles  and  scapulae,  articulating  with  each  other 
by  means  of  the  acromio-clavicular  and  with  the  trunk  by  the 
sterno-clavicular  joints;  (4)  the  pelvis,  another  bony  ring  articu- 
lating with  the  lower  end  of  the  spine. 

The  spine  as  a  whole  is  fairly  mobile  by  means  of  the  inter- 
vertebral  disks  and  the  joints  between  the  articular  processes  of 
the  vertebrae.  The  mobility  in  the  different  regions  of  the  spine 
varies  in  range  and  kind.  The  chief  factors  which  determine  this 
are:  (1)  the  thickness  of  the  intervertebral  disks,  (2)  the  plane 
of  the  surfaces  by  which  the  articular  processes  meet,  and  (3)  the 
tightness  or  laxness  of  the  ligaments,  especially  of  those  connect- 
ing the  articular  processes.  In  the  thoracic  region  the  attach- 
ment of  the  ribs  to  the  vertebrae  is  a  very  important  factor  influ- 
encing mobility  or  rather  limiting  it.  Generally  speaking, 
mobility  is  greatest  in  the  lumbar  spine,  smallest  in  the  thoraic. 
As  regards  the  different  kinds  of  movement,  flexion,  extension 
and  hyperextension  are  most  free  in  the  lumbar  region.  Here 
the  existing  physiological  curve  is  one  of  hyperextension  (includ- 
ing often  the  twelfth  thoracic  vertebrae,  and  sometimes  the 
eleventh).  This  hyperextension  may  be  carried  considerably 
further.  The  opposite  movement,  flexion,  is  correspondingly  free, 
reaching  and  passing  somewhat  beyond  the  straight  line,  in  the 
average  young  person  at  least.  In  the  thoracic  region  the  spine 
is  normally  in  a  state  of  flexion.  This  may  be  increased  a  moder- 
ate amount.  The  opposite  movement  of  extension  can  only  be 
carried  to  the  straight  line,  and  barely  that  in  most  persons. 
The  range  of  flexion  and  extension  is  therefore  not  very  great 
here,  chiefly  owing  to  the  attachment  of  the  relatively  rigid  thorax 
to  this  part  of  the  spine;  also,  the  intervertebral  disks  are  here 
thinner  and  the  ligaments  tighter  than  in  the  other  regions,  notably 


12  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

the  lumbar.  For  these  reasons  the  side-bendings  also  are  here  less 
free  than  in  the  lumbar  region.  Rotation,  on  the  contrary,  is 
much  freer  in  the  thoracic  (amounting  to  about  30  degrees  each 
way)  than  in  the  lumbar  region,  where  the  locking  of  the  articular 
processes  prevents  all  but  a  very  slight  amount  of  this  kind  of 
movement.  The  cervical  spine  is  capable  of  all  the  movements 
enumerated,  the  freedom  and  range  being  intermediate  between 
the  other  two.  Rotation  is,  however,  greater  here  than  in  the 
lumbar  spine. 

The  chest,  although  relatively  rigid  as  compared  with  the  whole 
spine,  is  yet  capable  of  considerable  variations  in  its  diameters. 
This  is  accomplished  by:  (1)  a  rolling  movement  of  the  posterior 
portions  of  the  ribs  (directed  outward,  downward  and  a  little 
backward)  on  an  axis  passing  through  the  costo-central  and  costo- 
transverse  joints;  (2)  by  a  twisting  and  straightening  movement 
of  the  rib  cartilages;  and  (3)  by  a  gliding  motion  in  the  chondro- 
sternal  and  inter-chondral  joints.  On  account  of  their  obliquity 
and  peculiar  curves,  the  resulting  movement  of  the  ribs  is  one 
which  for  convenience  of  description  it  is  customary  to-  analyze 
into  two  parts :  elevation,  involving  a  raising  of  the  anterior  ends 
of  the  ribs  and  the  sternum  and  a  tilting  of  the  latter  (due  to  the 
comparative  immobility  of  the  first  pair  of  ribs)  ;  and  eversion, 
implying  a  "spreading  out"  of  the  ribs  laterally,  a  moving  out- 
ward, as  well  as  upward  of  their  convex  lower  borders.  In  this 
way  both  the  antero-posterior  and  transverse  diameters  of  the 
chest  are  increased.  This  movement  of  the  ribs,  while  involving 
the  complete  range  of  motion  in  the  costo- vertebral  joints  (and 
this  is  not  very  great  on  account  of  the  number  and  shortness  of 
the  costo-vertebrar  ligaments)  is  considerably  amplified  by  the 
supplementary  movements  of  the  thoracic  vertebrae  in  the  direc- 
tion of  extension.  In  other  words,  whenever  there  is  an  effort  at 
extreme  chest  expansion,  the  thoracic  spine  is  straightened  at  the 
same  time.  Conversely,  any  movement  of  the  thoracic  spine  influ- 
ences the  position  of  the  chest,  as,  aside  from  the  short,  tense 
ligaments,  the  intimate  muscular  connection  between  the  verte- 
brae and  the  ribs,  will  cause  the  latter  to  follow  any  movement  of 
the  former,  even  before  the  limit  of  motion  in  the  costo-vertebral 
joints  has  been  reached. 

The  movements  of  the  shoulder  girdle,  involving  the  sterno- 
clavicular  and  acromio-clavicular  joints,  may  be  most  readily, 
though  imperfectly,  expressed  in  terms  of  movement  of  the 
scapula.  Thus  (1)  elevation' and  (2)  depression  of  this  bone 
imply  movement  in  both  of  the  joints  mentioned,  of  such  a  nature 
as  to  keep  the  scapula  from  being  displaced  in  other  directions 
than  directly  upward  and  downward,  and  from  changing  its  plane. 
Similarly  the  scapula  may  be  moved  away  from  and  toward  the 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  13 

mid-spinal  line  by  complementary  movements  of  the  two  joints. 
This  is  (3)  abduction  and  (4)  adduction  of  the  scapula.  Finally 
the  scapula  may  be  made  to  swing  around  on  an  approximately 
central  axis,  in  such  manner  that  the  glenoid  cavity  will  face 
almost  directly  upward,  and  the  vertebral  scapular  border  will 
approach  the  horizontal,  with  the  lower  angle  close  to  the  pos- 
terior axillary  line.  This  is  called  (5)  rotation  upward,  and  the 
return  to  the  ordinary  position  (and  a  little  beyond  it)  (6),  rota- 
tion downward.  While  these  movements  of  the  scapula  are 
described,  for  the  sake  of  simplicity  as  "pure,"  that  is,  each  occur- 
ring without  any  admixture  of  any  other,  this  does  not  occur 
naturally.  Usually  two  or  more  are  associated.  Only  by  very 
skillful  muscular  coordination  and  considerable  effort  can  pure 
movements  be  approximated.  All  these  scapular  movements  are 
supplementary  to  the  movements  in  the  shoulder  joint,  and  by 
means  of  them  the  range  of  movements  of  the  upper  arm  is  nearly 
doubled. 

The  shoulder  joint  proper — between  the  head  of  the  humerus 
and  the  glenoid  cavity  of  the  scapula — allows  about  90°  to  110°  of 
all  kinds  of  motion :  flexion  and  extension,  a  moving  of  the  arm 
forward  (upward)  and  return,  and  also  a  slight  amount  of  hyper- 
extension,  i.e.,  a  moving  of  the  arm  backward ;  abduction  and 
adduction,  a  moving  of  the  arm  directly  outward  (away  from  the 
side)  and  return,  and  also  a  slight  amount  of  hyperadduction 
when  combined  with  flexion;  a  combination  or  rather  a  succes- 
sion of  these — circumduction ;  and  finally  rotation  inward  and 
outward  of  the  humerus  on  its  length  axis  a  varying  amount 
(from  30°  to  40°  each  way).  These  movements  are  checked  and 
limited  by  the  capsular  ligament,  the  coraco-humeral  ligament,  by 
approximation  of  the  tuberosities  of  the  humerus  to  the  arch 
formed  by  the  acromion  and  coracoid  processes  of  the  scapula  and 
the  ligament  connecting  them ;  and  lastly — though  first  in  point  of 
time — by  stretching  of  the  muscles  whose  tendons  surround  the 
joint  on  all  sides  and  act  as  accessory  ligaments. 

II.       MUSCLES. 

The  various  movements  of  the  spine  are  produced  (aside  from 
the  part  played  by  gravity)  by  muscles,  attached  by  one  or  both 
ends  to  the  spine,  and  also  by  muscles  attached  to  the  chest, 
shoulder  girdle  and  pelvis.  Thus  active  flexion  of  the  whole 
spine  would  be  brought  about  by  the  anterior  neck  muscles,  the 
pectorals  (the  internal  intercostals),  the  straight  and  oblique 
abdominal  muscles,  and,  under -some  circumstances,  by  the  latis- 
simus  dorsi.  Active  extension  and  hyperextension  would  in  gen- 
eral be  produced  by  the  erector  spinse  and  its  upper  prolongations, 
all  the  deeper  and  some  of  the  superficial  back  muscles,  such  as 


14 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


serratus  posticus  superior  and  inferior,  levator  anguli  scapulae  and 
trapezius.  Active  side-bending,  or  straightening  up  from  the  posi- 
tion of  side-bending,  would  involve  the  front  and  back  muscles  of 
the  corresponding  side.  Rotation  or  trunk  twisting  would  be  pro- 
duced by  consecutive  relays  of  oblique  muscles  on  both  sides  of 
the  spine  and  by  the  external  oblique  abdominal  muscles  of  one 
side  working  in  conjunction  with  the  internal  oblique  of  the  other 
side.  These  will  be  discussed  in  more  detail  in  connection  with 
the  analysis  of  gymnastic  movements. 

The  muscles  which  move  the  chest  are:  (1)  the  muscles  of 
ordinary  inspiration — external  intercostals  (anterior  portion  of 
internal  intercostals),  levatores  costarum,  scaleni;  (2)  those  of 
forced  inspiration — sterno-mastoid  and  the  anterior  neck  muscles 
attached  by  their  lower  ends  to  the  sternum,  the  subclavius,  lower 
(anterior)  part  of  latissimus  dorsi,  lower  serratus  magnus,  lower 
pectoralis  major,  pectoralis  minor,  serratus  posticus  superior, 
accessorius  ad  ilio-costalem,  cervicalis  ascendens,  and  indirectly 
most  of  the  other  back  muscles;  (3)  the  muscles  of  forced  expira- 
tion— the  internal  intercostals,  the  abdominal  muscles,  quadratus 
lumborum,  serratus  posticus  inferior,  ilio-costalis,  longissimus 
dorsi,  infracostales  and  triangularis  ste'rni.  The  diaphragm  in  its 
descent  tends  to  draw  the  lower  ribs  somewhat  (upward  and) 
inward.  This  is  resisted  by  the  quadratus  lumborum  and  serratus 
posticus  inferior,  which  may  thus  in  certain  forms  of  breathing 
be  considered  as  aids  to  forced  inspiration. 

The  muscles  which  move  the  scapula  are  as  follows : 


(1)  Elevators: 

Upper  trapezius, 
Levator  anguli  scapulae. 
Rhomboids. 


(4)  Adductors: 
Trapezius, 
Rhomboids, 

and  indirectly 
Latissimus  dorsi. 


(2)  Depressors. 

Lower  trapezius, 
Lower  serratus  magnus, 
Pectoralis  minor - 

and  indirectly 
Subclavius, 
Latissimus  dorsi,  « *• 
Lower  pectoralis  major. 

(5)  Rotators  upward: 
Trapezius, 
Serratus  magnus. 


(3)  Abductors: 

Serratus  magnus. 
*  Pectoralis  minor 
and  indirectly 
Pectoralis  major. 


(6)  Rotators  downward: 
Rhomboids, 

Levator  anguli  scapulae, 
Pectoralis  minor 
and  indirectly 
Latissimus  dorsi, 
Lower  pectoralis  major. 


The  following  shoulder  joint  muscles  move  the  humerus  on  the 
scapula,  in  any  position  of  the  latter  bone : 


(1)  Flexors: 

Pectoralis  major, 
Anterior  deltoid, 
(Short  head  of  biceps, 
Coraco-brachialis) . 

(4)  Adductors: 

Latissimus  dorsi, 
Ter es  maj  or  (and  minor ), 
Pectoralis  major, 
Long  head  of  triceps. 


(2)  Extensors: 

Latissimus  dorsi, 

Teres  major, 

(Long  head  of  triceps) . 

(5)  Rotators  inward: 
Subscapularis, 
Pectoralis  major, 
Latissimus  dorsi, 
Teres  major, 
Anterior  deltoid. 


(3)  Abductors: 
Deltoid, 
Supraspinatus, 
Long  head  of  biceps. 

(6)  Rotators  outward: 
Infraspinatus, 
Teres  minor, 
Posterior  deltoid. 


16  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

It  will  be  noticed  that  all  the  muscles  which  move  the  scapula 
and  a  majority  of  those  which  move  the  humerus  on  the  scapula 
act  in  more  than  one  capacity.  Thus  the  trapezius  as  a  whole 
is  both  an  adductor  and  a  rotator  upward  of  the  scapula,  while 
its  upper  portion  elevates  and  its  lower  portion  depresses  this 
bone  (by  movement  in  the  sterno-clavicular  joint).  Similarly  the 
serratus  magnus  as  a  whole  abducts  and  rotates  the  scapula  up- 
ward, while  its  lower  portion  also  tends  to  depress  it  bodily.  The 
pectoralis  minor  abducts,  depresses  and  helps  to  rotate  it  down- 
ward; the  rhomboids  and  levator  anguli  scapulae  adduct,  elevate 
and  rotate  it  downward.  The  reasons  for  this  multiplicity  of 
action  are  found  in  the  extensive  lines  of  origin  of  most  of  these 
muscles  on  the  chest  or  spine  and  the  relatively  small  extent  of 
surface  of  their  insertion  on  the  scapula ;  in  the  oblique  direction 
of  their  fibres  relative  to  the  movements  named;  and  finally  (as 
regards  rotation)  in  the  position  of  their  scapular  insertions  and 
the  direction  of  their  pull  relative  to  the  sterno-clavicular  and 
acromio-clavicular  joints. 

Among  the  muscles  which  produce  movement  in  the  shoulder 
joint  we  find  a  few  capable  of  chiefly  one  kind  of  action.  Such 
are  the  supra-  and  infraspinatus,  the  subscapularis  and  perhaps 
the  teres  minor.  The  others  act  in  two  or  more  capacities,  as,  for 
example,  the  pectoralis  major,  which  raises  the  arm  from  the 
fundamental  position  forward,  upward  and  inward  across  the 
chest  (a  combination  of  flexion  and  hyper-adduction),  while  from 
any  pbsition  of  the  arm  above  the  horizontal  it  moves  it  down- 
ward and  inward  across  the  chest.  In  conjunction  with  the 
deltoid  the  pectoralis  major  is  therefore  a  flexor  of  the  shoulder 
joint  while  in  conjunction  with  latissimus  dofsi  it  is  an  adductor. 
At  the  same  time  it  also  helps  in  rotation  inward.  The  reasons 
for  the  varied  actions  of  the  shoulder  joint  muscles  are  similar  to 
those  given  regarding  the  scapular  muscles. 

Another  point  to  be  noted  is  the  indirect  action  of  the  pectoralis 
major  and  latissimus  dorsi  on  the  scapula.  They  are  not  attached 
to  this  bone,  but  nevertheless  greatly  influence  its  movements. 
When  the  limits  of  motion  in  the  shoulder  joint  have  been  reached 
and  the  ligaments  are  stretched  or  the  bony  processes  in  contact, 
the  two  bones  (humerus  and  scapula)  are  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses one,  and  the  pull  of  the  above  named  muscles  is  thereby 
exerted  on  the  scapula.  This  happens  even  before  the  limits  of 
motion  in  the  shoulder  joint  have  been  reached,  owing  to  the 
intimate  muscular  connection  between  the  two  bones.  This  is  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  definition  and  execution  of  gym- 
nastic exercises,  and  will  be  referred  to  again. 

From  the  foregoing  it  will  be  seen  that  rarely,  if  ever,  is  any 
given  movement  of  the  scapula  or  arm  produced  by  one  muscle, 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  17 

or  even  by  a  single  group.  Each  kind  of  movement  is  the  result 
of  the  combined  action  of  many  muscles  pulling  in  divergent  lines, 
acting  partly  against,  and  so  neutralizing  each  other,  partly  in 
the  same  direction. 

Resultant  movement.    The  exact  direction  or  plane  of  the 

X       movement  will  depend  on  the  number  and  obliquity  of  the 
Re  muscles  involved,  and  the  amount  of  pull  (and  leverage) 
exerted  by  each.    It  is  in  this  way  that  so  many  "shades" 
of  adjustment  are  possible. 

Before  taking  up  the  study  of  the  anatomical  mechanism  of 
gymnastic  movements  it  might  be  well  to  consider  briefly  a  few 
general  principles  which  have  to  be  reckoned  with  in  any  attempt 
to  analyze  such  movements. 

GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

The  principal  factors — besides  the  force  of  muscular  contrac- 
tion— concerned  in  the  production  and  modification  of  movement 
are  gravity,  inertia  and  momentum  of  the  body  or  its  parts, 
pressure  in  the  joints  (due  to  oblique  direction  of  muscular  pull), 
leverage,  the  resistance  of  fibrous  substances  (ligaments  and 
fasciae)  and  of  passive  or  contracting  muscles. 

(1)  Gravity.     The  weight  of  the  body  or  its  parts,  or  any 
weight  attached  to  them,  always  acts  vertically,  unless  we  change 
its    direction   by   mechanical    appliances,    machines,    etc.      It    is 
usually  antagonistic  to  the  muscular  force,  though  not  always ; 
e.g.,  in  raising  the  arm  sideways  the  abductors  of  the  shoulder 
joint  work  against  gravity;  when  lowering  the  arm  slowly  gravity 
is  the  motive  force,  while  the  abductors  of  the  shoulder  joint  are 
still  active  in  checking  or  controlling  the  speed  of  the  movement. 
If  a  very  quick  lowering  is  desired,  the  opposite  muscles,  the 
adductors  of  the  shoulder  joint,  will  be  called  into  play.    Gravity 
of  course  continues  to  act,  but  this  time  in  conjunction  with  the 
muscles.    It  may  also  be  allowed  to  be  the  sole  factor  in  the  pro- 
duction of  the  movement.    All  that  is  necessary  is  to  relax  com- 
pletely the  abductor  muscles  and  let  the  arms  drop. 

(2)  Inertia.    Besides  the  initial  effort,  differences  and  changes 
of  speed  must  also  be  taken  into  account  in  estimating  the  power 
developed  during  a  movement.     An  increase  of  speed  involves 
more  powerful  muscular  contraction,  but  of  the  same  kind  as 
previously ;  a  decrease  of  speed,  a  diminution  of  that  kind  of 
muscular  action,  or  perhaps  a  contraction  of  the  opposite  muscles, 
if  the  change  of  speed  is  sudden  and  marked,  amounting  then  to  a 
checking,  and  involving  the  overcoming  of  momentum. 

(3)  Pressure  in  the  joints,  due  to  oblique  muscular  pull. 

The  direction  of  the  pull  of  many  muscles  is  at  a  very  acute 


18 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


angle  to  the  (length)  axis  of  the  bone  on  which  they  pull,  at  least 
during  one  stage  of  the  movement.  Under  such  conditions  a 
large  part  of  the  muscular  force  is  used  up  in  pressing  the  ends 
of  the  bones  together,  and  for  this  reason  that  stage  of  the  move- 
ment is  harder  than  some  other  stage  where  the  direction  of  the 
muscular  pull  is  more  perpendicular  to  the  bone.  Illustration: 
the  pull  of  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  pectoralis  major  on  the 
humerus,  and  of  the  biceps  on  the  radius  during  the  first  part  of 
the  arm  bending  in  the  hanging  position.  (See  also  leverage.) 

(4)  Internal  resistance.  Motion  in  most  joints  is  easiest 
within  a  limited  range,  representing  only  a  portion  (usually  the 
central)  of  the  total  range  of  motion  possible  in  the  joint.  Beyond 
this  the  agencies  which  limit  motion,  such  as  the  stretching  of 
muscles,  fasciae  and  -ligaments,  the  contact  of  soft  and  bony  parts, 
begin  successively  and  increasingly  to  exert  resistance.  For 
example,  bending  the  fingers  requires  an  increasing  amount  of 
effort  as  the  movement  proceeds,  because  of  the  resistance  offered 
by  the  extensor  tendons  and  by  the  contact  of  the  soft  parts  on 
the  palmar  side.  Similarly,  straightening  of  the  fingers  becomes 
increasingly  difficult  as  we  approach  the  straight  line.  In  the 
movements  of  the  shoulder  joint  and  scapula,  of  the  chest,  spine 
and  hip,  the  internal  resistance  plays  an  important  role.  It  is 
one  of  the  chief  elements  of  difficulty  in  the  correct  execution  of 
movements,  and  in  the  maintenance  of  good  posture.  In  order 
to  secure  completeness  of  movement  against  this  resistance, 
maximal  muscular  contractions  of  great  intensity  are  necessary. 


Yf 


(5)     Leverage.     The  amount  of  force  necessary  in  the  pro- 
duction of  a  movement  or  in  maintaining  a  position  depends 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


19 


among  other  things  on  the  relative  leverage  of  the  active  mus- 
cle (s)  on  one  hand,  and  of  the  weight  on  the  other.  Leverage,  as 
applied  in  the  body,  may  be  defined  as  the  perpendicular  distance 
from  the  axis  of  motion  (fulcrum,  joint)  to  the  line  representing 
the  application  and  direction  of  the  force.  Thus  in  the  figure 
F  P'  is  the  leverage  of  the  power  and  F  W  is  the  leverage  of  the 
weight.  To  balance,  P  X  FP'  must  equal  W  X  FW. 

Of  the  three  classes  of  levers  it  is  probable  that  only  the  first 
and  third  are  represented  in  the  body.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the 
usual  arrangement  is  that  resistance,  i.e.,  the  weight,  reaction  to 
gravity,  etc.,  is  applied  near  the  distal  end  of  a  segment  (bone), 
the  power  near  the  proximal  end,  close  to  the  fulcrum  (joint). 
The  leverage  of  the  weight  is  therefore  much  greater  than  the 
leverage  of  the  power.  Or,  stated  more  accurately,  the  power  and 
the  weight  are  to  each  other  inversely  as  the  distance  from  the 
point  of  application  and  direction  of  each  to  the  axis  of  motion. 
This  means  that  a  great  deal  more  power  must  be  exerted  by  the 
muscles  than  is  represented  by  the  amount  of  weight  they  have  to 
move  or  sustain.  Furthermore,  the  direction  of  application  of 
both  forces  relative  to  the  bones  on  which  they  act,  and  conse- 
quently their  leverage,  changes  as  the  movement  progresses.  This 
is  another  reason  why  one  stage  of  the  movement  (the  first  in  the 
figure)  is  often  the  hardest.  (See  also  obliquity  of  muscular  pull.) 


U 


On  the  other  hand  the  arc  traversed  by  the  distal  end  of  the 
segment,  where  the  weight  is  applied,  is  much  greater  than  the 
arc  traversed  by  that  point  on  the  segment  where  the  power  is 
applied,  and  as  it  takes  the  same  time,  the  former  has  to  travel 
at  a  much  faster  rate  than  the  latter.  Thus  we  find  that  while 


20  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

the  levers  of  the  body  are,  in  general,  unfavorable  as  regards 
power,  they  are  favorable  for  speed,  and  momentum;  that  while 
the  muscles  work  at  a  mechanical  disadvantage,  as  far  as  economy 
of  power  is  concerned,  rapidity  of  movement  is  greatly  enhanced. 
(6)  Categorical  classification  of  muscles.  Finally,  in  analyzing 
the  muscular  action  occurring  in  gymnastic  movements,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  not  only  the  muscles  which  are  directly  con- 
cerned in  the  production  of  the  movement — to  be  referred  to  as 
motor  muscles — but  also  those  which  are  brought-  into  play  to 
limit  the  extent  and  speed,  and  to  determine  the  exact  plane  and 
direction  of  the  movement.  These  are  sometimes  directly  opposed 
to  the  movement,  sometimes  only  partly  so,  pulling  more  or  less 
obliquely  in  directions  opposite  to  that  in  which  the  movement  is 
taking  place.  The  first  may  be  called  antagonistic,  the  second, 
steadying  muscles  in  respect  to  a  particular  movement.  Often  the 
motor  muscles  themselves  pull  in  oblique  directions,  then  acting 
also  as  steadying  muscles.  Besides  these  kinds  of  muscular  action 
there  is  still  another ;  viz.,  the  induced  action  of  muscles  attached 
by  one  end  to  the  segment  from  which  the  motor  (antagonistic 
and  steadying)  muscles  take  their  origin,  and  by  the  other  end  to 
some  distant  point.  This  kind  of  action  is  especially  marked  in 
cases  where  the  bone  giving  origin  to  the  motor  muscles  is  itself 
freely  movable  (as  for  example  the  scapula)  and  therefore 
requires  fixation  by  muscular  action  of  this  secondary  kind,  in 
order  to  enable  the  motor  muscles  to  exert  the  main  part  of  their 
force  on  the  distal  segments  (the  humerus  in  the  example  given). 
Muscles  acting  in  this  capacity  may  be  called  fixator  muscles. 
In  many  trunk  and  shoulder  blade  movements  of  an  exact,  local- 
ized character  there  may  be  several  relays  of  such  fixators,  the 
purpose  of  all  the  complex  muscular  action  being  to  produce  as 
much  and  as  accurate  movement  as  possible  in  one  place,  and  as 
little  as  possible  anywhere  else.  The  importance  of  this  in  the 
training  of  coordination  and  of  the  tone,  strength  and  endurance 
of  the  muscles  responsible  for  good  posture  will  be  readily 
appreciated. 

GYMNASTIC  MOVEMENTS. 

A.     FREE-STANDING  ARCHING,  BACK,  ARM  AND  SHOULDER  BLADE 

MOVEMENTS. 

In  defining  gymnastic  movements  the  fundamental  gymnastic 
ppsition  will  be  taken  as  a  starting  point.  The  changes  in  the 
position  of  the  joints  will  then  be  stated,  and  the  action  and 
interplay  of  motor,  antagonistic,  steadying  and  fixator  muscles 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


21 


described.  The  faulty  tendencies  peculiar  to  each  movement  will 
be  discussed  and  analyzed,  or  at  any  rate  the  differences  between 
the  defined  gymnastic  movement  and  similar,  slightly  differently 
defined  movements,  gymnastic  and  otherwise,  pointed  out. 

1.  The  fundamental  position  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  is  not  an  easy, 
relaxed,  "natural"  position.  It  should  be 
considered  a  gymnastic  exercise  and,  as 
such,  should  call  for  a  -  considerable 
amount  of  conscious  muscular  action  (of 
the  static  kind).  , 

The  head  and  neck.  The  line  of  gravi- 
tation from  the  head  ordinarily  lies  in 
front  of  the  thoracic  spine,  thus  tending 
to  make  the  head  and  neck  fall  forward. 
To  prevent  this  the  posterior  neck  and 
upper  back  muscles  must  be  kept  in  a 
state  of  moderate  contraction.  With 
this  goes  also  a  slight  contraction  of  the 
anterior  neck  muscles  to  keep  the  head 
from  being  merely  tilted  backward,  which 
would  be  the  first  and  chief  effect  of  the 
contraction  of  the  posterior  neck  mus- 
cles. By  the  combined  and  balanced 
action  of  the  two  sets  of  muscles  the 
head  is  poised  in  a  plane  coincident  with 

that  of  the  "squared"  shoulders.  This  action  will  be  more  fully 
explained  under  "Backward  bending  of  head." 

The  thoracic  spine  should  be  kept  straight.  This  involves  a 
considerable  amount  of  contraction  of  the  longitudinal  back 
muscles — the  upper  prolongations  of  the  erector  spinae — varying 
in  intensity  according  to  the  degree  of  mobility  of  this  part  of 
the  spine  in  the  individual,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  is  curved 
in  the  habitual,  relaxed  position. 

The  shoulders.  Placed  near  the  top  of  the  anteriorly  concave 
thoracic  spine  they  naturally  tend  to  fall  forward  of  their  own 
weight  until  checked  by  the  passive  tension  of  the  posterior  scapu- 
lar muscles  (trapezii  and  rhomboids).  The  mere  straightening 
of  the  thoracic  spine  will  in  some  cases  put  the  shoulders  in  a 
fairly  good,  "square"  position  by  shifting  the  weight  line  to  a 
more  posterior  plane,  and  probably  also  by  inducing  a  slight 
associated,  unconscious  action  of  the  shoulder  retractors.  But  in 
most  cases,  and  especially  in  those  whose  habitual  position  is  poor 
for  one  reason  or  another,  this  is  not  enough,  at  least  for  a 
fundamental  gymnastic  position.  This  should  demand  a  fairly 
vigorous,  conscious  effort  to  depress  and  slightly  retract  the 


FIGURE  3.    FUNDAMENTAL 
GYMNASTIC  POSITION 


22 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


t 


FIGURE  4.    RELAXED 
STANDING  POSITION 


scapulae.  (The  combined  action  of  the 
muscles  concerned  in  this  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  connection  with  the  shoulder 
and  arm  movements.) 

The  chest.  As  a  result  both  of  the 
straightening  of  the  upper  spine  and  the 
contraction  of  the  depressors  of  the 
scapulae  which  are  attached  to  the  ribs 
(latissimus  dorsi,  lower  serratus  magnus 
and  pectoralis  minor),  the  chest  is  held 
in  a  state  of  moderate  expansion  in  the 
fundamental  gymnastic  position.  This 
need  not  involve  the  drawing  in  of  air,  or 
keeping  an  unusual  amount  of  air  in  the 
chest,  if  the  abdomen  is  at  the  same  time 
retracted. 

Summary.  The  fundamental  gymnas- 
tic position  is  active,  consciously  erect, 
"unnatural,"  in  most  cases.  It  involves 
fairly  vigorous  static  contraction  of  all 
those  muscles  on  whose  tone  and  endur- 
ance good  habitual  posture  depends,  namely,  the  upper  erector 
spinae,  the  posterior  and,  to  a  less  degree,  the  anterior  neck 
muscles,  the  adductors  and,  more  particularly,  the  depressors  of 
the  scapulae  as  well  as  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  arms  may 
be  allowed  to  hang  at  the  sides  (not  in  front)  comparatively 
relaxed,  at  least  after  the  individual  has  learned  to  assume  a 
correct  position  elsewhere. 
J  2.  Backward  bending  of  head.  The 
muscular  action  is  of  the  same  kind  as  that 
given  for  the  fundamental  standing  position, 
but  it  is  of  greater  intensity,  especially  in 
the  case  of  the  longitudinal  back  and  pos- 
terior neck  muscles.  The  majority  of  the 
latter  are  attached  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
cervical  spine,  and  many  to  the  occiput. 
Because  of  this,  and  also  because  the  cervi- 
cal spine  is  naturally  hyperextended,  i.e., 
convex  anteriorly,  the  effect  of  strong  con- 
traction of  the  posterior  neck  muscles  is  to 
tilt  the  head  backward,  that  is,  to  increase 
the  hyperextension  in  the  cervical  spine  and 
at  the  same  time  to  hyperextend  the  head 
on  the  atlas.  Such  a  movement  is  of  very 

small  value,  as  the  head  may  still  be    and        FlGURE  5    BACKWARD 
very  often  is,  in  front  of  the  plane  of  the  BENDING  OF  HEAD 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


23 


shoulders.  To  avoid  this,  and  to  obtain  a  good  poise  of  the  head, 
the  flexors  of  the  head  and  neck  (rectus  capitis  anticus  major 
and  minor,  longus  colli,  scaleni  and  the  small  muscles  running 
between  the  sternum,  hyoid  bone  and  lower  jaw)  must  be 
strongly  contracted.  This  is  what  occurs  when  the  effort  is 
made  to  "draw  in  the  chin."  The  two  sets  of  muscles  thus 
working  against  each  other,  the  posterior  slightly  in  excess  of 
the  anterior,  keep  the  head  steady  on  the  top  of  the  cervical 
spine,  produce  a  straightening  of  the  latter,  bind  the  two  firmly 
together  and  make  them  move  backward  as  one  piece.  In  other 
words,  the  pull  of  the  posterior  muscles,  upper  back  as  well 
as  neck,  is  in  this  way  made  to  produce  a  backward  movement 
of  the  whole  neck,  with  the  head,  and  is  in  reality  an  extension 
in  the  upper  thoracic  spine.  It  is  valuable  not  only  for  the  culti- 
vation of  a  good  posture  of  the  head  and  for  improving  the  mus- 
culature of  the  neck,  but  by  inducing  straightening  of  the  upper 
thoracic  spine  it  also  leads  to  moderate  expansion  of  the  upper 
chest.  This  is  made  more  pronounced  by  (1)  the  pull  of  the 
sterno-mastoids  and  the  other  anterior  neck  muscles  attached  by 
their  lower  ends  to  the  sternum  and  two  upper  ribs;  (2)  by  the 
contraction  of  the  shoulder  blade  depressors.  These  are  brought 
into  play  in  order  to  keep  the  shoulders  from  moving  upward,  a 
tendency  which  is  very  strong  because  some  of  the  posterior  neck 
muscles  (trapezius  and  lev.  ang.  scap.)  are  also  elevators  of  the 
shoulder  blades.  When  they  contract  vigorously  in  the  effort  to 
move  the  head  backward,  they  also  tend  to  pull  the  scapula  up 
towards  the  head,  unless  this  action  is  neutralized  and  the 
scapula  held  fixed  by  the  depressors  of 
the  latter,  viz.,  the  latissimus  dorsi, 
lower  serratus  magnus,  pectoralis 
minor.  These  again  are  attached  by 
their  lower  ends  to  the  sides  and  front 
of  the  chest,  from  the  third  to  the 
twelfth  ribs,  and  as  their  pull  is  more 
or  less  upward,  they  will  contribute 
materially  to,  and  make  more  general, 
the  chest  expansion  which  results  in  the 
first  place  from  the  straightening  of  the 
(upper)  thoracic  spine. 

3.  Backward  bending  of  trunk. 
The  mechanism  of  this  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  the  preceding.  The 
muscular  contractions  should  be  of  the 

utmost  intensity,  however,  thereby  in-  FKU-RE  6.   BACKWARD 

suring  the  most  complete  extension  in  BENDING  OF  TRUNK 


24 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


the  thoracic  spine  of  which  this  region  is  capable.  Efforts  should 
be  made  to  localize  the  movement  high  up  and  to  minimize  the 
participation  of  the  lumbar  spine.  Very  few  persons  are  able  to 
do  this  by  limiting  the  muscular  contraction  to  the  upper  portion 
of  the  erector  spinae,  this  group  usually  contracting  as  a  whole. 
Its  lower  portion  is  more  compact  and  powerful  than  the  upper ; 
it  runs  over  that  part  of  the  spine  which  enjoys  the  greatest  free- 
dom of  motion,  especially  in  a  backward  direction,  and  which  is 
already  in  a  state  of  hyperextension  (concave  backward)  and 
therefore  offers  the  muscle  better  leverage  than  the  posteriorly 
convex  thoracic  region.  Gravity,  too,  soon  becomes  a  factor  and 
acts  with  increasing  leverage  as  the  arching  in  the  lower  back 
becomes  more  pronounced.  In  short,  any  strong  effort  to  arch 
backward,  even  when  directions  regarding  localization  high  up 
are  most  explicit,  is  apt  to  result  in  a  marked  hyperextension  of 
the  lumbar  region,  often  without  even  including  the  full  amount 
of  straightening  possible  in  the  thoracic  spine,  which  is  the  main 
object  of  the  exercise.  The  more  untrained  the  individual,  the 
more  this  is  the  case.  In  extreme  instances  of  this  inability  to 
localize,  even  the  knee  joints  participate  in-  the  movement.  It 
is  for  this  reason  that  it  is  always  unsatisfactory  and  inadvisable 
to  attempt  a  "backward  bending  of  the  trunk"  with  classes  or 
individuals  until  they  have  learned,  by  practicing  backward  bend- 
ing of  head,  to  make  the  muscular  effort  high  up  in  the  back? 
and  also  to  neutralize  the  action  of  the  lower  erector  spinae, 
gravity,  etc.,  by  strongly  retracting  the  abdomen  and  by  holding 
the  pelvis  in  a  more  horizontal  plane  than  in  the  ordinary  position. 
In  this  way  the  lumbar  hyperextension  may  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum,  indeed  entirely  pre- 
vented in  many  cases.  This, 
however,  is  difficult  to  teach  a 
person,  and  requires  persistent 
and  patient  instruction  and 
assistance.  This  subject  will 
come  up  again  in  the  chapter  on 
the  lower  trunk  and  hip  region. 
With  the  extreme  contraction 
of  the  back  extensors  should  be 
associated,  by  way  of  reinforce- 
ment, equally  powerful  action  of 
the  posterior  scapular  muscles, 
i.e.,  the  adductors  and  especially 

the   depressors   of   the   shoulder  FlGURE  7.   FATJLTY  BACKWARD 

blades.      As    has    already    been  BENDING  OF  TRUNK 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


25 


stated,  the  latter  are  at  the  same  time  elevators  of  the  ribs,  and  as 
the  scapulae  cannot  move  very  far  downward;  the  effect  of  the 
pull  of  these  muscles  will  be  to  raise  the  ten  lower  ribs.  The 
subclavius  (an  indirect  depressor  of  scapula)  and  the  anterior 
neck  muscles,  which  are  both  being  stretched  and  trying  to  con- 
tract, do  the  same  for  the  two  upper  ribs.  The  complete  straight- 
ening of  the  thoracic  spine  is  always  accompanied  by  a  con- 
siderable expansion  of  the  chest 
through  the  stretching  of  costo- 
vertebral  ligaments.  All  these 
factors  taken  together  bring 
about  an  extreme  excursion  of 
the  ribs  upward  and  only  to  a 
slightly  less  extent  laterally. 

4.  Forward  bending  of  trunk. 
This  movement-should  take  place 
chiefly  in  the  hip  joints,  but 
should  also  include  some  flexion 
in  the  lumbar  region,  enough  to 
obliterate  the  natural  hyper- 
extension  there  and  make  the 
wThole  spine  approach  as  nearly  . 
as  possible  a  straight  line  with  an 
inclination  of  about  forty-five  de- 
grees. The  most  important  muscular  action  occurs,  however, 
in  the  upper  back. 

The  movement  is  started  by  a  slight  contraction  of  the  abdomi- 
nal muscles  and  continued  by  gravity.  All  the  back  muscles  as 
well  as  the  posterior  hip  muscles  are  then  brought  into  action ;  the 
latter  to  control  the  speed  of  the  movement  in  the  hip  joints,  the 
former  to  keep  the  spine  straight  and  rigid.  As  the  inclination 
increases,  the  leverage  of  the  weight  becomes  greater,  and  the 
muscles  mentioned  work  at  a  correspondingly  increasing  mechani- 
cal disadvantage.  Hence  the  strong  tendency  to  allow  the  upper 
back  to  curve  and  the  head  and  shoulders  to  droop.  This 
tendency  is  the  stronger  the  higher  the  arms  are  held,  both  because 
the  center  of  gravity  is  thereby  raised,  with  a  corresponding 
increase  of  the  weight  leverage,  and  also  because  of  the  additional 
work  demanded  of  the  posterior  shoulder  blade  muscles. 

Another  factor  which  adds  to  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the 
upper  back  straight  in  this  movement  is  the  inability,  especially  in 
untrained  individuals,  to  keep  the  upper  back  muscles  in  a  state 
of  strong,  unyielding  static  contraction,  while  the  lower  erector 
spinae  and  the  posterior  hip  muscles  are  allowed  to  yield  gradually. 
This  is  sometimes  called  "eccentric"  contraction.  All  these 
muscles,  and  especially  the  longitudinal  back  muscles,  are  closely 


FIGURE  8.  FORWARD  BENDING  OF 
TRUNK.  ALSO  ARM  BENDING 


26  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

associated  and  usually  work  together  as  a  physiological  whole. 
It  is  doubtful  if  a  segment  of  these  at  lower  level  can  remain 
relaxed  while  one  at  a  higher  level  is  contracting  vigorously.  But 
by  practice  a  person  may  learn  to  contract  different  portions  with 
different  degrees  of  intensity.  This  seems  to  be  what  happens  in 
forward  bending  of  trunk  when  done  correctly  as  described.  The 
same  is  probably  true  to  some  extent  in  the  preceding  move- 
ments, backward  bending  of  head  and  trunk,  and  in  the  funda- 
mental gymnastic  position. 

In  returning  to  the  erect  position  the  same  muscles  are  active, 
the  lower  erector  spinae  and  the  hip  extensors  now  becoming  the 
motor  force,  contracting  "concentrically"  (shortening),  while 
gravity,  acting  with  a  diminishing  leverage  as  the  movement 
proceeds,  is  the  antagonistic  force. 


FIGURE  9.    FORWARD-DOWNWARD  BENDING  OF  TRUNK 


5.  Forward-downward  bending  of  trunk  is  like  the  preceding 
in  all  respects,  except  that  the  lumbar  and  hip  joint  flexion  is 
carried  as  far  as  possible,  by  relaxing  the  lower  back  muscles  and 
hip  joint  extensors.  This  should  be  done  without  disturbing  the 
position  of  the  upper  back  by  induced  relaxation  of  the  upper 
back  and  posterior  shoulder  blade  muscles. 

Here,  as  in  the  preceding  movement,  the  chest  is  kept  in  the 
fundamental  position." :  This  is  here  even  more  difficult  than  in 
forward  bending,  because  of  the  stronger  tendency  to  curve  the 
upper  back.  The  movement  should  not  be  allowed  to  proceed 
far  enough,  nor  should  the  arms  be  held  in  a  position  high 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  27 

enough   to    induce   this    curving   of    the   upper   back   with   the 
associated  depression  of  the  chest. 

The  two  movements  are  of  value  in  training  the  control, 
strength,  tone  and  endurance  of  all  the  back  muscles',  by  making 
them  do  their  full  duty  in  maintaining  erect  posture  under  diffi- 
culties, which  may  be  as  great  as  one  wishes.  Moreover,  the 
conditions  in  the  lower  back  as  regards  pressure  and  tension  are 
reversed,  thus  serving,  in  a  measure,  to  counteract  the  undesirable 
effects  of  excessive  lumbar  hyperextension  often  obtaining  in  the 
habitual  standing  position  and  in  many  gymnastic  exercises-. 
•V  6.  Arm  bending.  This  movement  is  done  in  various  ways: 
with  elbows  on  a  level  with  the  shoulder;  with  hands  placed  on 
the  chest ;  with  hands  in  front  of  the  shoulders  and  elbows  either 
close  to  the  waist,  or  behind  the  lateral  plane  of  the  body,  or 
directly  in  front  (the  last  is  often  seen  when  chest  weights  are 
used)  ;  with  elbows  approximately  at  right  angles,  close  to  the 
waist,  and  forearms  directed  horizontally  forward;  finally  with 
elbows  completely  flexed,  as  close  to  the  body  as  possible,  and 
hands  (clenched  or  not)  as  far  back  on  the  shoulders  as  pos- 
sible. The  last  variation  will  be  analyzed,  embodying  as  it  does 
all  the  valuable  features  of  the  others  and  being  the  most  vigorous 
and  effective  of  them  all.  (Fig.  8.) 

The  joint  mechanism  is  comparatively  simple:  complete  flexion 
in  the  elbow  joint,  and  complete  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder 
joint.  The  motor  muscles  are  the  forearm  flexors  (biceps, 
supinator  longus,  brachialis  anticus)  and^the  rotators  outward  of 
the  upper  arm  (infraspinatus,  teres  minor  and  the  posterior  por- 
tion of  the  deltoid).  £  It  is  the  complete  rotation  outward  in  the 
shoulder  joint  that  makes  the  movement  effective  and  its  analysis 
interesting. 

It  is  difficult  for  most  persons  to  place  the  hands  close  to  and 
on  the  outside  of  the  shoulder  and  at  the  same  time  keep  the 
elbows  close  to  the  waist.  In  other  words,  with  the  effort  at 
complete  flexion  in  the  elbow  and  complete  rotation  outward  in 
the  shoulder  joint  there  is  associated  an  almost  irresistible  ten- 
dency to  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  rotation  upward  of 
the  scapula.  The  former  is  probably  caused  by  the  action  of  the 
biceps  (as  one  of  the  forearm  flexors),  one  of  whose  heads  also 
abducts  the  shoulder  joint,  and  by  the  induced  action  of  the  whole 
deltoid,  whose  posterior  portion  helps  in  producing  the  rotation 
outward  in  the  shoulder  joint.  The  rotation  upward  of  scapula, 
which  always  to  some  extent  accompanies  abduction  in  the 
shoulder  joint,  is  due  principally  to  the  pull  of  teres  major. 
This,  being  a  rotator  inward  of  the  shoulder  joint,  is  of  course 
stretched  during  rotation  outward.  It  also  contracts  in  the  effort 
to  keep  the  elbow  close  to  the  side  of  the  body.  Being  attached 


28  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

by  its  lower  end  to  or  near  the  lower  angle  of  the  scapula,  its 
effort  to  adduct  the  arm  results  partly  in  swinging  the  lower  angle 
of  the  scapula  outward,  toward  the  humerus.  In  this  position 
of  the  shoulder  joint  the  teres  minor  has  a  similar  though  weaker 
action,  when  it  contracts  as  a  rotator  outward. 

In  the  effort  to  keep  the  shoulder  joint  adducted,  the  latissimus 
dorsi  is  also  brought  into  play.  This  pulls  the  arm  backward,  as 
well  as  downward  and  inward,  and  is  thus  largely  responsible  for 
another  of  the  common  "faults"  of  the  movement,  viz.,  the 
passing  of  the  elbow  behind  the  plane  of  the  back.  At  the  same 
time  this  muscle,  like  the  teres  major,  is  a  rotator  inward  and 
contributes  a  large  part  of  the  resistance  the  outward  rotators 
have  to  overcome.  When  to  this  is  added  the.  resistance  offered 
by  the  other  rotators  inward,  teres  major,  subscapularis  and  pec- 
toralis  major,  the  difficulty  of  complete  rotation  outward  is 
explained. 

To  insure  a  complete  and  "pure"  movement  as  defined  at  the 
outset,  it  is  then  necessary  to  employ  still  other  muscles.  In  the 
first  place,  the  motor  muscles — teres  minor,  infraspinatus  and 
posterior  deltoid — have  to  contract  with  utmost  vigor  to  overcome 
the  resistance  of  the  antagonistic  and  steadying  muscles  as 
decribed  above.  On  account  of  the  extreme  effort  which  this 
demands,  the  trapezius  and  perhaps  to  a  less  extent  the  rhomboids 
contract  "in  sympathy,"  tending  to  move  the  scapula  nearer  the 
spine,  in  this  way  reinforcing  the  rotators  outward  of  the  shoulder 
joint._^In  this  action  the  adductors  of  the  scapula  and  the  rotators 
outward  of  the  shoulder  joint  may  be  considered  as  one  physio- 
logical whole,  with  the  scapula  placed  at  its  lower  and  outer  por- 
tion, and  attached  at  its  outer  end  to  the  greater  tuberosity  of  the 
humerus.  Secondly,  the  strong  effort  needed  to  keep  the  elbow 
down  close  to  the  side,  i.e.,  to  keep  the  arm  adducted,  leads  to 
the  associated  contraction  of  all  the  shoulder  blade  depressors — 
the  pectoralis  minor,  lower  pectoralis  major  and  lower  serratus 
magnus,  as  well  as  the  latissimus  dorsi  (acting  in  the  first  place  as 
an  adductor  of  the  arm)  and  the  lower  trapezius  (already  men- 
tioned as  taking  part  in  the  effort  at  adduction  of  the  scapula). 
The  action  of  the  pectoralis  major  neutralizes  the  tendency  of 
the  latissimus  dorsi  and  teres  major  to  pull  the  arm  too  far  back- 
ward. 

Besides  bringing  about  the  "pure"  and  complete  movement  of 
arm  bending  according  to  the  definition  given,  the  result  of  the 
contraction  of  all  these  muscles  in  the  way  described  is  a  very 
forcible  expansion  of  the  chest,  both  antero-posteriorly  and  lat- 
erally. Some  of  the  reasons  for  this  are  the  same  as  those  already 
described  under  "Backward  bending  of  trunk,"  viz.,  the  pull  of 
the  shoulder  blade  depressors  on  the  ten  lower  ribs.  In  addition, 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER. REGION  29 

the  lower  pectoralis  major,  while  helping  to  hold  the  arm  down 
and  keeping  it  from  moving  behind  the  lateral  plane  of  the  body, 
is  at  the  same  time  stretched  by  the  rotation  outward  in  the 
shoulder  joint.  Being  kept  by  other  muscles  from  moving  the 
arm  forward  and  rotating  inward  it  tends  to  move  the  points  of 
its  lower  attachment  (the  cartilages  of  the  fifth,  sixth  and  seventh 
ribs)  upward  and  outward.  The  direction  of  the  fibers  of  this 
portion  of  the  muscle  is  oblique  enough  to  enable  it  to  act  in 
this  way,  and  so  help  to  intensify  the  enlargement  of  this  part  of 
^1>e  chest. 

Another  effect  of  doing  the  movement  in  the  way  described  is 
a  marked  extension  of  the  thoracic  and  lumbar  regions  of  the 
spine.  Some  of  this  is  caused  by  the  forcible  elevation  and 
eversion  of  the  ribs,  but  aside  from  this  the  strong  efforts  of  the 
posterior  shoulder  muscles  induce  an  almost  involuntary  con- 
traction of  the  extensors  of  the  spine.  This  may,  indeed,  be  the 
primary  factor,  especially  if  the  attention  and  efforts  of  the 
individual  are  directed  to  it.  Such  admonitions  are  often  neces- 
sary to  insure  a  good  posture  of  the  head.  In  any  case,  the 
contraction  of  the  longitudinal  back  muscles,  as  has  already  been 
shown,  cannot  be  localized  very  definitely  to  the  higher  levels, 
and  almost  invariably  produces  the  most  marked  effects  in  the 
lower  back.  This  excessive  hyperextension,  which  may  reach 
as  high  up  as  the  tenth  thoracic  vertebra,  and  even  higher  in 
exceptional  cases,  is  no  doubt  also  contributed  to  by  the  latissimus 
dorsi,  as  the  majority  of  its  fibres  arise  from  the  lower  thoracic 
and  the  whole  lumbar  spine,  and  pass  obliquely  upward,  outward 
and  forward.  Not  being  permitted  to  pull  its  upper  attachment 
(on  the  humerus)  backward  because  of  the  resistance  of  the 
pectoralis  major,  it  tends  to  pull  its  lower  attachment  (lumbar 
spine)  forward. 

This  excessive  "hollowing"  of  the  lower  back  is  a  very  unde- 
sirable by-product  of  the  movement.  It  is  considered  serious 
enough  by  many  teachers  to  justify  them  in  so  defining  it  as  to 
leave  out  the  complete  rotation  outward  or  the  complete  adduction 
in  the  shoulder  joint,  or  both.  It  then  assumes  the  form  of  one 
or  another  of  the  variations  enumerated  in  the  beginning,  some 
of  which  were  designated  as  "faulty"  later  in  the  discussion. 
This  point  of  view  is  of  course  entirely  reasonable.  But  on  the 
other  hand  it  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  with  these  two  elements 
left  out  the  movement  loses  most  of  its  effectiveness,  both  as 
regards  the  amount  and  vigor  of  the  muscular  work  done,  and 
the  kind  of  training — in  tone,  endurance  and  control — given  to 
those  muscles  which  are  responsible  for  good  posture  of  the  upper 
back,  chest  and  shoulders.  Furthermore,  it  is  possible  to  do  the 
movement  with  utmost  vigor  and  completeness  without  inducing 


30  GYMNASTIC  K1NESIOLOGY 

much,  or  any,  hyperextension  in  the  lower  back.  While  this  is 
difficult  and  requires  the  additional  action  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  and  hip  extensors,  the  necessary  amount  of  coordination 
is  attainable  by  the  average  individual,  if  he  is  properly  guided 
and  stimulated  by  the  teacher.  When  this  neutralizing  muscular 
action  is  mastered,  the  all-round  value,  as  well  as  the  complexity, 
of  this  useful  and  apparently  simple  movement  is  still  further 
increased.  This  part  of  the  mechanism  of  the  movement  has 
already  been  alluded  to  under  "Backward  bending  of  trunk,"  and 
will  be  further  explained  in  the  chapter  on  the  lower  trunk  and 
hip  regions. 

\  The  arm 


raising  sideways\  The  arms  are  moved  through  or 
rather  behind  the  lateral  plane  of  the  body  to  the  horizontal 
position,  palms  down.  Anatomically  that  means^abduction  in  the 
shoulder  joint  with  some  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula  and 
efforts  to  adduct  and  depress  this  bone7}v 

The  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula  in  this  movement  illustrates 
something  which  has  already  been  alluded  to,  namely,  the  tendency 
of  the  scapula  to  follow  the  arm.  Normally  the  shoulder  joint 
allows  at  least  100  degrees  of  abduction.  Theoretically,  therefore, 
there  should  be  no  need  of  the  scapula  taking  part  in  this  move- 
ment (arm  raising  sideways).  The  earlier  investigators  of  the 
mechanism  of  movements  (the  brothers  Weber)  assumed  that  any 
extensive  movement  of  the  arm  involved  first  the  shoulder  joint 
only,  and  then,  when  the  limits  of  motion  in  that  joint  had  been 
reached  (ligaments  being  stretched,  etc.),  the  scapula,  with  the 
arm  firmly  fixed  to  it,  became  the  moving  segment.  That  this  is 
not  the  case  can  be  readily  demonstrated  by  any  one,  and  has-  been 
definitely  proved  by  Steinhausen.  He  has  shbwn,  by  a  series  of 
radiographs,  that  the  scapular  element  is  actually  most  pronounced 
in  the  early  stages  of  a  movement  of  the  arm  away  from  the  side 
and  up  overhead.  In  general  it  may  be  said  thatjjll  arm  move- 
ments involve  displacements  of  the  scapula,  and  even  when  efforts 
are  made  to  avoid  it,  this  bone  will  begin  to  move  long  before 
the  extreme  limits  of  motion  in  the  shoulder  joint  have  been 
reached.  This  can  be  due  only  to  two  factors:  (1)  the  intimate 
muscular  connections  between  the  humerus  and  scapula,  the 
muscles  acting  as  elastic  ligaments  of  the  shoulder  joint;  and  (2) 
induced  or  associated  contraction  of  scapular  muscles  whenever 
any  set  of  shoulder  joint  muscles  contracts  vigorously.Jlllustration 
of  both  was  afforded  in  the  analysis  of  the  preceding  movement 
"Arm  bending."  In  "Arm  raising  sideways"  we  have  an  even 
simpler  case. 

ThQ  'abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint  is  produced  by  the  deltoid 
and  supraspinatus,  aided  by  the  long  head  of  the  biceps.  As  soon 
as  the  arm  begins  to  move,  the  muscles  running  from  the  lower 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  31 

angle  of  the  scapula  to  the  humerus — teres  major,  teres  minor 
and  the  lower  fibers  of  the  subscapularis,  especially  the  teres 
major — are  made  tense  and  so  exert  an  outward  pull  on  the  lower 
angle  of  the  scapula.^  On  the  other  hand,  the  deltoid  is  so 
closely  associated  witn  the  trapezius,  functionally,  that  it  is 
practically  impossible  to  contract  the  former  without  inducing 
contraction  of  at  least  the  upper  portion  of  the  latter.  Here  again 
it  will  be  helpful  to  consider  the  two  muscles  one,  physiologically, 
with  the  clavicle  and  upper  part  of  the  scapula  set  into  its  middle. 
In  any  upward  movement  of  the  arm  the  two  work  together.  All 
parts  of  jtfie  trapezius  pull  the  upper  end  of  the  scapula  toward  the 
spine  more  than  the  lower  end.  This,  then,  with  the  swinging 
outward  of  the  lower  angle  by  the  passive  pull  of  the  teres  major, 
etc.,  accounts  for  the  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula.  The  lower 
and  middle  parts  of  the  serratus  magnus  also  contract,  being 
habitually  associated  with  the  trapezius  in  rotation  upward  of 
the  scapula  £M oilier). 

The  upj>er  trapezius,  on  account  of  its  oblique  direction,  is  also 
a  scapular  elevator.  This  accounts,  in  part,  for  the  common  ten- 
dency to  raise  the  shoulders,  as  well  as  the  arms,  in  this  move- 
ment, especially  when  no  particular  effort  is  made  to  prevent  it. 

The  plane  of  the  movement  is  determined  chiefly  by  the  relative 
amount  of  resistance  offered  by  the  antagonistic  muscles — pec- 
toralis  major  on  the  one  hand,  and  latissimus  dorsi  and  teres 
major  on  the  other.  Without  explicit  directions  the  average 
individual  will  move  the  arms  in  front  of,  rather  than  through  or 
behind,  the  lateral  plane  of  the  body.  This  is  the  easiest  way,  and 
does  not  require  any  special  effort.  The  pectoral  pulls  in  a  more 
horizontal  direction  forward  than  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  teres 
major  do  in  a  backward  direction.  In  other  words,  the  pectoral 
has  the  advantage  in  leverage  and  directness  of  pull  over  the 
others.  Besides  it  is  apt  to  have  greater  tone — less  slack  to  be 
taken  up,  so  to  speak. 

So  far,  then,  the  mechanism  of  the  movement  represents  only 
what  occurs  in  an  ordinary,  non-gymnastic  arm  raising  sideways, 
such  as  we  do  many  times  in  the  course  of  the  day  without  think- 
ing about  it.  Such  a  movement  would  require  but  little  muscular 
work  and  still  less  muscular  control.  To  make  it  amount  to  any- 
thing in  these  respects,  that  is/to  make  it  a  gymnastic  exercise, 
it  must  be  done  according  to  the  definition  given  at  the  outset: 
arms  moving  behind  the  transverse  plane  of  the  body.  ]  This 
implies  additional  muscular  work,  and  work  of  an  exact  charac- 
ter. T'he  tendency  to  let  the  arm  move  forward  is  overcome 
by  active  contraction  of  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  teres  major. 
Associated  with  this  and  inseparable  from  it,  is  the  effprt  to 
adduct  the  scapula  by  vigorous  contraction  of  the  whole  trapezius 


32  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

and  the  rhomboids.  There  is  also  induced  action  of  the  levator 
anguli  scapulae.  With  the  extreme  contraction  of  the  posterior 
deltoid,  the  arm  is  thus  brought  back  as  far  as  possible.  \  But  the 
upper  trapezius,  rhomboids  (and  levator  anguli  scapulae)  are 
elevators  as  well  as  adductors  of  the  scapula,  because  of  the 
oblique  direction  of  their  fibers.  Hence  the  raising  of  the  shoul- 
ders, already  mentioned  as  occurring  even  in  the  easy  "non-gym- 
nastic" form  of  the  movement,  when  the  upper  trapezius  con- 
tracts "in  sympathy"  with  the  deltoid,  tends  to  become  more 
pronounced.  Especially  is  this  the  case  if  the  movement  is  done 
quickly.  For  this  reason  special  effort  has  to  be  made  to  keep  the 
shoulders  down.  This  involves  additional  action  of  the  latissimus 
dorsi  and  the  lower  trapezius  (both  already  active  in  the  effort 
to  keep  the  arms  back)  as  well  as  the  pectoralis  minor,  lower 
pectoralis  major  and  lower  serratus  magnus  (see  next  movement 
for  more  detailed  analysis  of  the  interplay  of  elevators  and 
depressors). 

The  pectoralis  minor  and  (lower)  serratus  magnus  are  abduc- 
tors as  well  as  depressors  of  the  scapula.  When  they  are  made 
to  work  against  the  adductors  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the 
shoulders  down,  there  results  also  a  "flattening"  of  the  upper 
back,  i.e.,  a  closer  apposition  of  the  vertebral  borders  of  the 
scapulae  to  the  back.  The  latissimus  dorsi,  lower  serratus  magnus 
and  pectoralis  minor  are  attached  by  their  lower  ends  to  the  ten 
lower  ribs.  When  the  scapula  and  arm  have  been  fixed,  or  moved 
as  far  as  is  desired,  further  action  of  these  muscles  will  produce 
chest  expansion. 

The  total  result,  then,  of  the  contraction  of  all  these  muscles 
in  the  way  described  is  to  move  the  arms  to"  the  horizontal  posi- 
tion in  a  plane  well  behind  the  shoulders  without  raising  the 
latter,  and  besides,  to  bring  about  a  "flattening"  of  the  upper  back 
and  a  moderate  chest  expansion.  This  is  accompanied,  as  usual, 
by  a  straightening  of  the  upper  back.  To  make  the  latter  as'pro- 
nounced  as  possible,  the  head  must  be  maintained  in  the  funda- 
mental, erect  posture,  and  without  special  effort  this  is  apt  to  be 
lost  to  some  extent. 

In  returning  to  the  fundamental  position  the  same  muscles  are 
still  active,  but  the  abductors  of  the  shoulder  joint  and  the  rotators 
upward  of  the  scapula  are  allowed  to  yield  to  gravity,  which  is 
the  motor  force  if  the  movement  is  slow,  or  to  the  adductors  oT~ 
the  shoulder  joint  and  the  rotators  downward  of  the  scapula  if 
the  movement  is  quick. 

8.  'Forward  bending  of  arms  differs  from  the  preceding  only 
in  the  additional  complete  flexion  of  the  elbows.  This  brings  the 
hands  in  front  of  and  on  a  level  with  the  shoulders.  Here  again, 
conscious  effort  has  to  be  made  to  keep  the  elbows  well  back  and 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


33 


FIGURE  10.    FORWARD  BENDING  OF  ARMS 


the  shoulders  down.     In  other  words,  the  action  of  the  motor 

muscles  —  deltoid,  supraspinatus   (and  biceps)  —  must  be  supple- 

mented by  vigorous  con- 

traction of  the  adductors 

and    depressors     of     the 

scapula  in  order  to  exe- 

cute    th^e    movement 

properly. 

The  repeated  mention 
of  these  two  sets  of 
muscles  in  the  gymnas- 
tic exercises  so  far  ana- 
lyzed has  undoubtedly 
been  noted  by  the  reader. 
Their  forcible  action  and 
orderly,  controlled  inter- 
play with  each  other  and 
with  their  antagonists,  the 
elevators  and  abductors  of 
the  scapula,  are,  or  should 

be,  a  Constant  and  marked 

feature  of   all  gymnastic 

exercises  and  especially  in  movements  of  the  upper  part  of  the 
body.  In  the  exercises  already  described,  and  in  those  that  are 
to  follow,  the  definitions  are  such  as  always  to  make  this  element 
prominent  by  presenting  varying  degrees  of  difficulty  and  resis- 
tance to  the  properly  coordinated  action  of  these  muscles.  As 
has  already  several  times  been  stated,  by  so  doing,  well-controlled 
and  powerful  action  of  the  longitudinal  back  muscles  is  also 
induced.  The  ultimate  object  of  denning  movements  in  this  way 
will  be  discussed  in  the  final  chapter  (on  fixation,  localization, 
muscular  tone,  etc.). 

The  movement  "Forward  bending  of  arms"  may,  perhaps, 
better  than  any  other  serve  to  illustrate  still  further  the  combined 
and  at  the  same  time  partially  antagonistic  action  of  the  shoulder 
blade  muscles.  While  it  offers  a  fair  degree  of  difficulty  to  cor- 
rect execution,  it  is  less  marked  in  this  respect  than  some  of  the 
movements  to  be  described,  because  of  the  absence  of  rotation  in 
the  shoulder  joint.  For  the  same  reason  its  analysis  is  less 
complicated. 

The  strong  contraction  of  the  scapular  adductors  —  trapezius, 
levator  anguli  scapulae,*  rhomboids  (direct)  and  latissimus  dorsi 


"The  lev.  ang.  scap.  has  probably  little,  if  any,  adductory  action  on  the  scapula.  It  is 
chiefly  an  elevator  and  also  helps  m  rotation  downward  of  the  scapula.  As  such  it  is 
always  associated  with  the  rhomboids  and  upper  trapezius. 


34  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

(indirect) — associated  with  the  effort  to  keep  the  elbows  back,  is 
very  apt  to  result  also  in  a  raising  of  the  shoulders  and  a  failure 
of  the  elbows  to  reach  their  proper  level.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  all  the  direct  adductors,  with  the  exception  of  the  lower  por- 
tion of  the  trapezius,  are  also  elevators  of 
the  scapula.  •'On  the  whole,  they  are  per- 
haps more  favorably  situated  for  the  pro- 
duction of  elevation  than  of  adduction. 
Of  the  direct  adductors  the  lower 
trapezius  alone  opposes  this  tendency  to 
elevation.  To  reenforce  it  the  latissimus 
dorsi,  an  indirect  depressor,  as  well  as 
adductor,  of  the  scapula  (through  its  pull 
on  the  humerus)  is  brought  into  action. 
But  as  its  leverage  on  the  humerus  in  this  position  of  the  shoulder 
joint  is  fairly  good  and  its  pull  on  this  bone  almost  perpendicular, 
a  large  part  of  its  work  is  spent  in  opposition  to  the  shoulder 
joint  abductors — deltoid,  supraspinatus  and  biceps.  These  are 
working  at  a  mechanical  disadvantage  on  account  of  their  oblique 
pull  on  the  humerus,  and  they  are,  besides,  very  nearly  at  the 
end  of  their  contracting  range  (the  biceps  is  probably  not  of 
much  use  here  as  a  shoulder  joint  abductor,  because  its  whole 
range  of  contraction  is  needed  for  the  flexion  of  the  elbow).  As  a 
consequence  the  latissimus  dorsi  is  apt  to  get  the  better  of  the 
shoulder  joint  abductors  and  prevent  them  from  raising  the  arm 
to  the  horizontal  position.  In  other  words,  the  latissimus  fails  to 
help  -the  lower  trapezius  in  its  effort  to  depress  the  scapula,  and 
does  something  which  is  literally,  as  well  aS  figuratively,  "more 
in  its  line" ;  it  adducts  the  humerus,  which  is  its  direct  function. 
It  also  pulls  the  arm  backward  as  far  as  it  will  go  (by  a  move- 
ment in  the  nature  of  hyperextension)  in  the  shoulder  joint,  and 
after  that  of  course  adducts  the  scapula. 

To  get  the  elbow  up  to  the  proper  level  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  the  shoulder  from  raising  as  a  result  of  the  excessive  upward 
pull  of  the  upper  scapular  adductors,  one  of  two  things  must  take 
place.  Either  the  supraspinatus  and  deltoid  must  contract  with 
sufficient  intensity  to  overcome  the  excessive  pull  of  the  latissimus, 
so  that  the  elbow  may  be  brought  up  to  the  level  of  and  behind 
the  shoulder  and  kept  there,  and  the  pull  of  the  latissimus  thereby 
be  exerted  on  the  scapula ;  or  additional  scapular  depressors  must 
be  called  upon.  Probably  both  of  these  means  are  used  by  the 
average  individual,  at  least  in  the  beginning  of  gymnastic  train- 
ing, and  this  is  in  fact  what  is  desired. 

The  other  scapular  depressors  are  the  pectoralis  minor  and 
lower  serratus  magnus  (direct)  and  the  lower  pectoralis  major 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  35 

(indirect).*  The  lower  pectoralis  major,  like  the  latissimus,  and 
for  the  same  reason,  partly  resists  the  deltoid  and  supraspinatus 
and  so  tends  to  pull  the  arm,  instead  of  the  scapula,  down;  but 
unlike  the  latissimus  and  in  opposition  to  it,  it  also  pulls  the  arm 
forward,  and,  through  its  pull  on  the  arm,  tends  to  abduct  the 
scapula  as  well.  Its  success  as  a  depressor  of  the  scapula  is,  then, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  latissimus,  dependent  on  the  ability  of  the 
deltoid  and  supraspinatus  to  raise  the  arm  to,  and  hold  it  in,  a 
horizontal  position.  The  pectoralis  minor  and  lower  serratus 
magnus  must,  therefore,  finally  be  called  into  action  to  insure  the 
fixation  of  the  scapula  as  far  as  elevation  is  concerned.  These, 
being  also  abductors,  will  by  their  contraction  materially  add  to 
the  resistance  already  exerted  by  the  pectoralis  major  against  the 
scapular  adductors.  The  latter,  it  will  be  remembered,  are 
brought  into  action  in  the  first  place  in  order  to  reenforce  the 
posterior  deltoid  in  its  effort  to  get  the  arm  back. 

To  sum  up,  then,  the  complete  and  "pure"  movement  of  "For- 
ward bending  of  arms"  is  accomplished  only  by  the  extreme 
contraction  of  the  shoulder  joint  abductors — deltoid,  supra- 
spinatus and  biceps.  The  plane  of  the  movement  behind  the  back 
is  further  insured  by  the  active  resistance  of  the  latissimus  dorsi, 
while  the  scapula  is  fixed  by  the  contraction  of  its  depressors 
and  adductors  against  its  elevators  and  abductors,  the  former 
set  slightly  in  excess  of  the  latter.  There  will  be  some  rotation  . 
upward  of  the  scapula,  as  the  trapezius  and  serratus  magnus  are 
both  active,  and  the  teres  major  is  at  any  rate  in  a  state  of  tension, 
but  this  relation  upward  will  not  be  as  great  as  would  be  the  \ 
case  if  all  the  scapular  muscles  (including  the  rotators  down- 
ward) were  not  vigorously  contracted. 

The  incidental,  but  really  most  important,  r-esult  of  the  muscu- 
lar action  here,  as^in  the  exercises  previously  described,  is  a 
flattening  and  straightening  of  the  upper  back,  with  accompany- 
ing chest  expansion.  This,  it  will  be  remembered,  is  due  to  the 
attachment  of  the  scapular  depressors  to  the  ribs,  and  is  made 
more  pronounced  by  the  induced  contraction  of  the  erector  spinse 
group. 

The  proper  muscular  coordination  in  this  movement  seems  to 
be  more  difficult,  at  least  to  a  beginner,  than  in  the  preceding 
movement,  "Arm  raising  sideways."  The  "faults" — elevation  of 
the  shoulders  and  drooping  of  the  arms — are  more  common  and 
persistent  in  the  former  than  in  the  latter.  The  addition  of  such 
an  apparently  insignificant  element  as  flexion  of  the  elbows  hardly 
seems  enough  to  account  for  the  difference,  especially  as  at  first 

*The  subclavius  is  also  a  depressor,  but  being  so  small  and  insignificant  it  will  not  be 
enumerated  hereafter.  It  will  be  understood  to  be  included  whenever  the  scapular  de- 
pressors are  mentioned. 


36  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

sight  it  might  appear  to  make  the  movement  easier  by  reducing 
the  weight  leverage.  Still,  the  increase  in  complexity  is  real.  To 
keep  the  wrists  straight,  and  the  hands,  elbows  and  shoulders  on 
the  same  level,  and  this  as  low  as  possible,  probably  requires  more 
divided  attention,  and  undoubtedly  more  coordination,  than  keep- 
ing all  the  segments  of  the  limb  in  line  and  on  the  same  lever.  The 
small  amount  of  help  given  by  the  biceps  in  the  abduction  of  the 
shoulder  joint,  because  of  its  complete  contraction  to  produce 
flexion  in  the  elbow,  may  also  be  a  factor. 

With  a  little  practice  the  average  individual  soon  learns  to  do 
"Forward  bending  of  arms,"  correctly,  in  the  main,  with  compara- 
tive ease.  This  saving  in  effort  is  probably  due  to  acquired  ability 
to  contract  the  deltoid,  especially  its  posterior  portion,  and  the 
lower  trapezius  more  powerfully,  while  the  contraction  of  the 
upper  trapezius,  rhomboids  and  levator  anguli  scapulas  is  to  some 
extent  inhibited.  This  makes  vigorous  action  of  the  latissimus, 
serratus  magnus  and  pectoralis  less  necessary.  The  contraction  of 
the  last  named  may  indeed  be  almost  entirely  dispensed  with  in 
the  case  of  a  well-trained  individual.  In  gymnastic  practice,  how- 
ever, it  is  well  always  to  demand  sufficient  vigor  in  doing  the 
exercise  to  call  forth  a  fair  degree  of  action  of  the  depressors  and 
adductors  of  the  scapula  and  the  extensors  of  the  spine.  This 
may  be  accomplished  in  various  ways,  such  as  by  direct  stimula- 
tion of  the  class,  or  by  combining  the  movement  with  a  trunk  or 
leg  movement. 

9.  Arm  raising  sideways  with  palms  up.     The  first  part  of 
this  movement  has  already  been  describe^    (see   "Arm   raising 
sideways").     The  additional  element  involves  complete  rotation 
outward  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  complete  supination  of  the  fore- 
arm.    The  action  of  motor,  steadying  and  fixator  muscles  in 
complete  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder  joint  is  similar  to  that 
occurring  in  "Arm  bending"  (see  page  28).    The  rotation  upward 
of  the  scapula,  which  is  to  some  extent  associated  with  each 
part  of  the  movement  when  done  separately,  is  more  pronounced 
when  they  are  combined.    The  same  is  true  in  a  less  degree  of  the 
elevation  of  the  scapula.    Hence  the  efforts  to  resist  these  scapu- 
lar displacements  must  be  correspondingly  vigorous.     The  net 
result  is  a  more  perfect  flattening  of  the  back  and  a  greater  lateral 
chest  expansion  than  in  any  of  the  preceding  movements. 

10.  Half  sideways  bending  of  arms.     This  differs  from  the 
preceding  only  in  that  the  elbows  are  bent  to  right  angle.     The 
increase  in  difficulty  of  execution  is,  however,  out  of  all  propor- 
tion to  the  relatively  slight  change  in  joint  mechanism.     Here 
the  tendency  to  raise  the  shoulders  and  to  lower  the  elbows  is 
even  greater  than  in  "Forward  bending  of  arms."     The  reasons 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


37 


for  this  are  probably  (1)  the  lessened  availability  of  the  biceps 
for  use  as  an  abductor  of  the  arm,  most  of  its  "contracting  range" 
being  needed  for 
flexion  of  the  el- 
bow and  supination 
of  the  forearm  ; 
(  2  )  the  absence 
of  "landmarks"  as 
guides  to  the  muscu- 
lar sense,  the  posi- 
tion reached  by  the 
movement  being  of 
an  intermediate 
character  with 
possibility  of  dis- 
placement in  every 
direction  except 
backward.  In  "Arm 
bending"  (see  page 
28)  the  efforts  to 
adduct  the  arm  and 
depress  the  scapula 
are  associated  and 

are     Continued     Until  FIG.  ll.    HALF  SIDEWAYS  BENDING  OF  ARMS 

each  meets  absolute 

resistance.  Here  efforts  to  depress  the  scapula  must  be  made 
while  the  somewhat  contrary  movement  of  abduction,  as  well  as 
rotation  outward,  of  the  arm  is  taking  place.  The  difficulties 
which  this  gives  rise  to  were  discussed  at  length  under  "Forward 
bending  of  arms."  Here,  too,  the  additional  attention  and  coordi- 
nation, as  well  as  the  actual  muscular  work  required  to  find  and 
hold  the  right  angle  at  the  elbow  and  to  keep  the  forearm  in  full 
supination,  still  further  increase  the  difficulties.  For  these  rea- 
sons the  movement  is  not  suitable  for  beginners.  But  when  the 
proper  coordination  has  been  acquired,  it  is  an  excellent  test  of 
the  individual's  control  of  all  the  upper  trunk  and  shoulder 
muscles,  as  well  as  an  effective  agent  for  further  cultivation  of 
tljie  control,  endurance  and  tone  of  those  muscles. 

.  Placing  the  hands  behind  the  neck  (without  locking  the 
fingers)  with  elbows  as  far  back  as  possible,  and  the  head  main- 
tained in  the  fundamental  position.  (Fig.  6.)  While  somewhat 
similar  to  the  preceding,  it  is  not  nearly  as  difficult.  The  joint 
mechanism  is  like  that  of  "Forward  bending  of  arms,"  viz.,  abduc- 
tion in  the  shoulder  joint,  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula  and 
flexion  in  the  elbow,  plus  complete  rotation  outward  in  the 
shoulder  joint.  The  muscular  action,  while  greater  in  amount 


38  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

and  apparently  more  complex  than  in  "Forward  bending  of  arms" 
because  of  the  additional  action  of  the  outward  shoulder  joint 
rotators — infraspinatus  and  teres  minor — is  really  less  difficult. 
This  is  due,  partly  at  least,  to  the  greater  ease  of  "rinding"  and 
even  maintaining  the  terminal  position,  the  contact  of  the  hands 
with  the  neck  serving  as  a  readily  available  and  familiar  guide 
to  the  proper  muscular  efforts.  On  this  account  it  is  easier  to 
keep  the  shoulders  down  without  lowering  the  elbows,  and  the 
individual  can  concentrate  his  attention  and  efforts  on  keeping  the 
elbows  well  back.  This,  while  involving  hard  work,  is  here  a 
simpler  problem  in  coordination  than  the  corresponding  effort  in 
"Forward  bending  of  arms."  The  shoulder  joint  abductors — 
deltoid  and  supraspinatus — and  the  scapular  adductors — trape- 
zius,  rhomboids  and  latissimus  dorsi — are  here  able  to  work  in 
more  perfect  unison,  because,  by  the  outward  rotation  of  the  arm, 
the  pull  of  the  former,  and  especially  of  the  posterior  and  central 
portions  of  the  deltoid,  is  changed  from  the  direct  lateral  plane 
to  an  oblique  upward  and  backward  direction.  This  is  more 
nearly  in  line  with  the  pull  of  the  scapular  adductors. 

In  this  movement,  as  in  "Arm  bending,"  in  "Half  sideways 
bending  of  arms"  and  in  "Arm  raising  sideways  with  palms  up," 
the  complete  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder  joint  requires 
intense  maximal  contraction  of  the  relatively  small  outward  rota- 
tors— infraspinatus  and  teres  minor.  The  resistance  offered  by 
the  more  numerous  and  stronger  inward  rotators — latissimus 
dorsi,  teres  major,  subscapularis  and  pectoralis  major — is  con- 
siderable even  in  the  fundamental  position  of  the  joint.  It  in- 
creases rapidly  as  the  arm  is  raised  and  at  the  same  time  moved 
backward.  The  anterior  part  of  the  capsular  ligament  with  its 
accessory  band,  the  coraco-humeral  ligament,  is  also  made  tense 
during  the  last  stage  of  the  rotation  outward.  In  individuals 
whose  ligaments  are  short  and  whose  inward  rotators  are  of 
relatively  excessive  tone — and  such  cases  are  numerous — the 
amount  of  rotation  outward  is  often  much  reduced.  When,  for 
any  reason,  rotation  outward  in  this  movement  is  incomplete,  the 
hands  cannot  be  brought  behind  the  neck — unless  the  head  (and 
neck),  or  the  elbows,  are  moved  forward.  By  moving  the  head 
forward  to  meet  the  hands  and  then  backward  again  to  the  fun- 
damental position,  the  posterior  neck  muscles  are  made  to  ree'n- 
force  the  rotators  outward  of  the  shoulder  joint.  To  make  this 
possible  the  wrist  and  hand  must  be  kept  straight  and  rigid,  and 
the  elbow  must  not  be  allowed  to  move  forward.  In  this  way  the 
forearm  becomes  the  lever  through  which  the  force  of  the  con- 
traction of  the  neck  muscles  is  transmitted  to  the  arm.  If  the 
head  is  kept  erect  from  the  outset,  and  the  elbows  are  first  moved 
forward,  then  backward,  the  same  result  is  obtained. 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  39 

When  the  amount  of  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder  joint  is 
less  than  normal,  or  the  outward  rotators  contract  insufficiently, 
one  of  three  things  happens :  the  head  is  not  brought  back  to  the 
fundamental  position ;  or,  if  it  is,  the  elbows  are  allowed  to  remain 
forward,  thereby  relaxing  somewhat  the  muscles  (especially  the 
pectoralis  major)  and  ligaments  which  resist  rotation  outward; 
finally,  if  the  individual  exerts  himself  with  sufficient  vigor  to 
keep  both  the  head  and  elbows  back,  the  wrists  and  hands  yield, 
assume  a  position  of  hyperextension  and  instead  of  meeting  in  a 
straight  line,  behind  the  neck,  converge  to  this  point  by  a  more 
or  less  acute  angle.  If  a  compromise  must  be  made,  the  last- 
mentioned  expedient  is  the  least  objectionable.  Persistent  and 
conscientious  efforts  will  in  most  cases  lead  to  a  sufficient  stretch- 
ing of  the  antagonistic  structures  and  strengthening  of  the  out- 
ward rotators  of  the  shoulder  joint  to  enable  the  individual  to 
assume  and  maintain  the  correct  terminal  position  of  this  move- 
ment. While  this  process  of  adjustment  is  going  on  it  is  best 
to  make  sure  of  the  position  of  the  head  and  elbows  (shoulders) 
first,  and  gradually  get  the  wrists  and  hands  straighter.  In  this 
way  the  scapular  adductors  and  depressors,  and  the  upper  erector 
spinse  are  given  opportunity  for  complete  and  powerful  contrac- 
tion each  time  the  position  is  taken,  and  this,  as  we  have  seen, 
means  straightening  and  flattening  of  the  back,  as  well  as  forcible 
chest  expansion. 

The  movement  and  the  position  reached  at  the  end  of  it  are 
very  useful  as  parts  of  compound  movements  in  which  the  other 
elements  may  be  trunk  or  leg  movements.  In  trunk  movements, 
such  as  forward  and  backward  bendings,  side  bendings  and 
twistings,  the  position  adds  to  the  severity  and  difficulty  of  the 
muscular  work  on  the  one  hand,  but  on  the  other  it  helps  the 
individual  to  judge  the  direction  and  plane  of  the  trunk  move- 
ment, and  so  in  a  way  facilitates  correct  execution.  The  terminal 
position,  when  correctly  taken,  also  has  a  certain  element  of 
stability — everything  having  been  moved  as  far  as  possible — and 
this,  too,  favors  accurate  localization  and  completeness  of  move- 
ment elsewhere. 

12.  Arm  raising  sideways — upward.  The  first  part  of  this 
movement  has  already  been  discussed  under  "Arm  raising  side- 
ways" with  palms  down,  the  second  part — the  turning  of  the 
hands — under  "Arm  raising  sideways  with  palms  up."  The 
mechanism  of  the  latter  (which  includes  that  of  the  former) 
involves  incomplete  abduction  and  complete  rotation  outward  in 
the  shoulder  joint,  and  partial  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula, 
accomplished  by  the  action  of  the  corresponding  muscles,  namely, 
the  deltoid  and  supraspinatus,  infraspinatus  and  teres  minor, 


40 


"GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


trapezius  and  serratus  magnus.  Besides,  the  action  of  the  adduc- 
tors and  depressors  of  the  scapula  was  shown  to  be  an  essential 
feature  of  these  exercises,  in  order  to  minimize  the  displacement 
of  the  shoulder  blade  and  confine  the  movement  as  much  as  possi- 
ble to  the  shoulder  joint. 

From  this  point  on  the  movement  consists  of  a  completion  of 
the  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  of  the  rotation  upward 
of  the  scapula.  The  motor  muscles  are  therefore  the  same  as 
before.  They  simply  contract  more  completely  and  powerfully. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  antagonistic  and  steadying  muscles.  Of 
the  latter,  the  latissimus  dorsi  and  the  rhomboids  must  contract 
with  considerable  force,  as  they  share  with  the  central  and  pos- 
terior deltoid  and  the  trapezius  (motor  muscles)  the  responsibility 
in  guiding  the  movement  in  (or  better  behind)  the  lateral  plane  of 
the  body  by  keeping  the  scapula  well  adducted. 

The  terminal  position  (Fig.  12)  involves  then  the  full  range  of 
motion  in  all  the  joints  of  the  shoulder  girdle,  and  is  a  very  fair 

index  of  the  mobility  in  those  joints. 
When  this  is  limited  for  any  reason, 
such  as  short,  iight  ligaments,  or  ex- 
cessive tone  or  contracture  of  some  of 
the  muscles  (usually  the  anterior),  the 
arms  cannot  be  brought  to  a  vertical 
position.  The  resistance  being  strong- 

fest  in  front,  on  account  of  the  tension 
of  the  adductors  and  rotators  inward 
k  of    the    shoulder    joint — (latissimus) 

Jk  teres  major,  pectoralis  major  and  sub- 

scapularis,  as  well  as  the  pectoralis 
minor,  which  resists  the  rotation  up- 
ward of  the  scapula — there  is  a 
marked  tendency  of  the  arms  to  move 
forward  as  they  ascend.  There  is 
also  a  strong  inclination  to  turn  the 
palms  forward,  instead  of  toward  each 
other.  This  means  incomplete  rota- 
tion outward  of  the  arm  as  well  as 
jfl  QBfefr  incomplete  supination  of  the  forearm. 

If  the  amount  of  mobility  in  the 
shoulder  joint  is  normal,  the  tendency 
of  the  arms  to  move  forward  is 
usually  overcome  by  a  sufficiently  vig- 
orous contraction  of  the  deltoid  (espe- 
cially its  posterior  and  central  por- 
tions), the  trapezius,  the  rhomboids 


I 


FIGURE  12 

POSITION  REACHED  BY  ARM 
RAISING  SIDEWAYS  -  UPWARD 
OR  FORWARD  -  UPWARD,  OR 
ARM  STRETCHING  UPWARD 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  41 

and  the  latissimus,  while  complete  and  intense  contraction  of  the 
infraspinatus,  teres  minor  and  the  supinators  of  the  forearm  are 
necessary  to  keep  the  palms  turned  toward  each  other.  When 
mobility  is  limited  on  account  of  shortness  of  the  muscles  and 
fibrous  structures  in  front,  so  that  the  arms  cannot  be  brought  to 
the  vertical  position,  shoulder  distance  apart,  the  expedient  of 
bending  backward  in  the  lumbar  spine  is  often  resorted  to  (usu- 
ally quite  unconsciously),  thereby  obtaining  an  appearance  of 
correct  position  at  the  end  of  the  movement.  This  is  of  course 
to  be  discouraged.  A  more  acceptable  terminal  position  in  such 
cases  is  one  with  the  arms  in  the  transverse  plane  of  the  body, 
but  directed  more  or  less  obliquely  outward  and  upward,  perhaps 
allowing  the  elbows  to  bend  a  little  so  that  the  hands  are  not  much 
more  than  shoulder  distance  apart.  This  insures  complete  con- 
traction of  the  posterior  muscles,  while  subjecting  the  resistant 
structures  to  as  much  tension  as  the  individual  can,  or  cares  to, 
exert.  At  the  same  time  he  is  not  deceived  into  thinking  that  he 
is  doing  one  movement  while  he  is  really  doing  another,  and  one 
which  he  is  better  off  without.  When  the  correct  terminal  posi- 
tion is  obtained  the  strong  tension  on  the  pectorals  and  latissimus, 
as  well  as  on  the  lower  serratus  (which  is  also  in  a  state  of 
complete  contraction),  exerts  a  correspondingly  vigorous  pull  on 
the  ribs  to  which  these  muscles  are  attached.  A  very  marked 
chest  expansion  is  the  result. 

The  return  to  the  fundamental  position  (arms  straight,  moving 
through  the  side  plane)  is  accomplished  by  gravity,  the  muscles 
which  produced  the  first  movement  now  being  the  antagonistic 
force,  remaining  in  a  state  of  "eccentric"  contraction  and  so 
regulating  the  speed  of  the  return  movement.  The  steadying 
muscles  are  the  same  as  before,  while  the  former  antagonistic 
muscles  (adductors  and  rotators  inward  of  the  shoulder  joint  and 
rotators  downward  of  the  scapula)  now  aid  gravity  by  their 
increased  action,  especially  if  the  return  movement  is  a  quick  one. 

13.  Arm  raising  forward  to  the  horizontal  position.  The 
hands  are  kept  at  shoulder  distance.  The  movement  is  principally 
a  flexion  in  the  shoulder  joint,  but  includes  also  a  certain  amount 
of  displacement  of  the  shoulder  girdle.  This  displacement  varies 
in  kind  and  amount  according  to  trie  habitual  position  of  the 
scapula  and  upper  back,  the  shape  of  the  chest,  and  the  amount  of 
muscular  control  possessed  by  the  individual.  Ordinarily,  the 
whole  scapula  moves  away  from  the  mid-spinal  line — is  abducted ; 
its  lower  angle  swings  outward  and  forward;  and  the  plane  of 
the  scapula  is  changed  from  one  approximately  parallel  with  the 
back  to  one  more  nearly  approaching  the  sagittal  plane  of  the 
body.  At  the  same  time  the  vertebral  scapular  border  is  brought 


42 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


FIGURE  13 

POSITION    REACHED    BY   ARM  RAISING    FOR- 
WARD, OR  ARM  STRETCHING  FORWARD 


away  from  the  back  and 
may  be  seen  or  felt  sharply 
projecting  under  the  skin. 
In  other  words,  the  scapula 
revolves  around  its  longi- 
tudinal axis  and  also 
swings  outward,  pendulum 
fashion,  by  a  gliding  move- 
ment in  the  acromio-cla- 
vicular  joint,  while  at  the 
same  time  the  outer  end  of 
the  clavicle  travels  forward 
by  a  movement  in  the  ster- 
nal-clavicular joint.  The 
displacement  of  the  scap- 
ula is  therefore  neither  a 
true  rotation  upward  nor  a 
simple  abduction  in  the 
senses  in  which  these  terms 
are  ordinarily  used. 

The    muscles    producing 
the  flexion  in  the  shoulder 

joint  are  the  anterior  portion  of  the  deltoid  and  the  upper  (cla- 
vicular) portion  of  the  pectoralis  major,  aided  by  the  short  (and 

long)  head  of  the  biceps  and 

the     coraco-brachialis.       The 

displacements  of  the  shoulder 

girdle  forward  are  partly  due 

to  the  passive  tension  of  the 

teres  major  and  minor  which 

always  occurs  when  the  arm 

moves  away  from  the  body ; 

partly   to   the   contraction   of 

the  serratus  magnus  especially 

its  lower  and  middle  portions, 

as  well  as  of  the  lower  and 

middle    trapezius     (Mollier). 

If  the  movement  is  vigorous 

and  quick  and  especially  if  the 

effort  is  made  to  reach  as  far 

forward  as  possible,  the  whole 

pectoralis     major     and     the 

whole  serratus  are  active.  The  FIGURE  14 

pectoralis  minor  and  the  leva-  FAULTY  ARM  RAISING  FORWARD 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  43 

tor  anguli  scapula  are  probably  also  then  associated  with  the 
other  muscles. 

So  far  what  might  be  called  the  ' 'non-gymnastic"  type  of  the 
movement  has  been  described.  For  certain  reasons  already 
alluded  to  under  "Forward  bending  of  arms"  (see  page  33)  it 
is  not  desirable  to  do  movements  in  this  way  in  gymnastic  prac- 
tice. Here  our  object  should  be  to  avoid  as  much  as  possible 
displacements  of  the  shoulder  girdle.  In  the  exercises  so  far 
analyzed  the  fixations  of  the  scapula  were  (1)  in  connection  with 
rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder  joint,  as  in  "Arm  bending," 
where  the  effort  to  resist  the  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula 
associated  with  abduction  of  the  arm  was  the  chief  feature;  (2) 
in  connection  with  simple  abduction  of  the  arm  as  in  "Arm  rais- 
ing sideways"  and  in  "Forward  bending  of  arms,"  demanding 
conscious  effort  to  resist  abduction,  elevation  and  excessive  rota- 
tion upward  of  the  scapula;  (3)  in  connection  with  combined 
abduction  and  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder  joint,  occurring  in 
"Arm  raising  sideways  with  palms  up,"  in  "Half  sideways  bend- 
ing of  arms"  and  in  "Placing  hands  behind  neck,"  requiring  even 
greater  effort  to  resist  the  tendency  to  elevation,  abduction  and 
rotation  upward  of  the  scapula,  associated  and  partly  replaced  in 
the  last-named  movement  with  special  effort  to  keep  the  head  in 
the  fundamental  position.  In  "Arm  raising  forward"  the  dis- 
placements of  the  shoulder  girdle  described  above  are  frequently 
excessive  and  obviously  of  a  very  undesirable  kind,  strongly  tend- 
ing to  emphasize  faulty  structural  relations  and  to  encourage  or 
confirm  "vicious"  motor  habits  in  this  region.  For  these  reasons 
the  first  definition  of  the  movement  should  be  qualified  by  requir- 
ing that  the  scapular  displacements  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 
This  at  once  changes  the  character  of  the  movement  from  an  easy, 
natural  one  to  an  exercise  of  considerable  difficulty  and  hard 
work.  It  brings  into  action  all  the  scapular  adductors,  and  as  they 
work  in  opposition  to  the  direction  of  the  main  movement,  a 
considerable  amount  of  coordination,  as  well  as  vigorous  contrac- 
tion, is  required  to  enable  them  to  maintain  a  fair  degree  of  fixa- 
tion of  the  scapula.  They  are  also  at  a  mechanical  disadvantage, 
particularly  as  compared  with  the  indirect  abductor  of  the  scapula, 
the  pectoralis  major.  Although  only  the  clavicular  portion  of  the 
latter  contracts  when  the  movement  is  done  slowly  and  easily, 
the  whole  muscle  is  active  whenever  a  quick  or  forcible  movement 
is  attempted,  and  especially  when  the  hands  are  brought  nearer 
together  than  shoulder  distance.  This  is  apt  to  be  the  case  unless 
guarded  against.  By  successful  management  of  the  scapular 
adductors,  the  terminal  position  is  changed  from  one  with  more 
or  less  rounded  back  and  depressed  chest  to  one  with  relatively 


44  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

straight,  flat  back  and  moderately  expanded  chest,  results  which 
always  accompany  the  proper  interplay  of  the  scapular  fixators. 

Because  the  problem  in  coordination  offered  in  this  exercise  is 
one  of  some  difficulty,  it  is  wisest  not  to  introduce  it  too  early  in 
gymnastic  training,  but  to  wait  until  a  fair  degree  of  control  of 
the  scapular  muscles  has  been  acquired  by  the  practice  of  some  of 
the  easier  shoulder  blade  exercises,  in  which  the  movement  of  the 
arms,  and  therefore  the  action  of  the  shoulder  joint  muscles,  is 
less  in  opposition  to  the  action  of  the  scapular  adductors  and 
depressors. 

14.  Arm  parting,  following  "Arm  raising  forward."  From 
the  horizontal  position  in  front  the  arms  are  moved  directly  back- 
ward in  the  horizontal  plane.  The  palms  may  be  turned  down  or 
up.  Anatomically  this  is  equivalent  to  abduction  and  exten- 
sion in  the  shoulder  joint,  with  adduction  of  the  scapula,  and 
slight  rotation  inward  or  complete  rotation  outward  in  the 
shoulder  joint  according  as  the  palms  are  turned  down  or  up. 
The  former  will  be  assumed  in  this  case.  The  motor  muscles 
are  the  deltoid,  the  trapezius,  especially  its  central  portion,  aided 
by  the  rhomboids.  The  terminal  position  is  the  same  as  that 
reached  by  "Arm  raising  sideways."  The  same  difficulties  are 
encountered  here,  viz.,  the  tendency  of  the  shoulders  to  rise  and 
of  the  arms  to  droop.  This  is  particularly  marked  if  the  move- 
ment is  quick  or  the  resistance  increased  by  chest  weights,  dumb 
bells,  etc.  Under  such  conditions  special  effort  is  also  needed 
to  keep  the  head  and  neck  from  moving  forward  and  the  lower 
back  from  excessive  arching.  This,  it  will  be  readily  seen,  is 
equivalent  to  a  bending  of  the  upper  back.  -By  allowing  this  to 
happen,  one  of  the  main  objects  of  the  movement — improving 
the  posture  in  this  region — is  defeated,  it  being  one  of  the  most 
commonly  used  and  typical  "setting-up"  exercises. 

The  muscles  whose  vigorous  contraction  is  necessary  for  the 
proper  execution  of  the  movement  are  the  scapular  depressors, 
notably  the  lower  trapezius  and  the  latissimus,  the  posterior  neck 
and  abdominal  muscles.  Because  of  the  difficulty  of  properly 
coordinating  the  action  of  all  these  muscles  (described  at  length 
under  "Forward  bending  of  arms"),  it  is  best  to  practice  the 
movement  slowly  at  first,  and  with  little  or  no  weights  in  the 
hands. 

The  return  movement  is  accomplished  by  the  contraction  of  the 
anterior  deltoid,  the  serratus  magnus  (lower  and  central  portions) 
and  the  pectoralis  major  (chiefly  the  upper  portion).  The  diffi- 
culties here,  and  the  secondary  muscular  action  called  for  in 
overcoming  them,  are  similar  to  those  described  in  "Arm  raising 
forward." 
V  15.  Arm  raising  forward-upward.  Having  reached  the  hori- 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  45 

zontal  position  in  front,  as  described  in  "Arm  raising  forward," 
the  continuation  of  the  movement  upward  to  the  vertical  posi- 
tion— arms  straight  overhead,  palms  facing  each  other — brings 
about  a  position  of  the  joints  identical  with  that  obtained  by  "Arm 
raising  sideways-upward,"  viz.,  complete  abduction  and  rotation 
outward  in  the  shoulder  joint,  complete  rotation  upward  of  the 
scapula  and  complete  supination  of  the  forearm.  That  the 
changes  of  position  in  the  shoulder  joint,  occurring  gradually  as 
the  movement  proceeds,  are  really  a  blending  of  those  which  are 
termed  abduction  and  rotation  outward  when  started  from  the 
fundamental  position  of  this  joint,  plus  a  rotation  upward  of 
the  scapula,  may  perhaps  be  more  readily  understood  if  the 
component  elements  of  the  movement  are  imagined,  for  the  sake 
of  illustration,  to  occur  one  at  a  time  in  a  certain  sequence. 
Assume  for  the  moment  that  "Arm  raising  forward"  is  a  pure 
flexion  of  ninety  degrees  in  the  shoulder  joint  (with  a  few 
degrees  of  rotation  outward),  the  scapula  remaining  immovable. 
Now  move  the  arm  backward  as  in  "Arm  parting."  That  brings 
the  shoulder  joint  into  a  position  of  complete  abduction  and 
extension.  Next  turn  the  palms  up.  This  involves  complete 
rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  complete  supination 
of  the  forearm.  Finally,  rotate  the  scapula  upward  on  its  central 
(horizontal)  axis,  and  (with  a  little  additional  abduction  in  the 
shoulder  joint)  the  vertical  position  of  the  arms  with  the  palms 
turned  inward  is  reached.*  The  real  movement  is  simply  a 
"short-cut,"  and  its  different  elements  take  place  gradually  and 
simultaneously.  The  abduction  and  rotation  of  the  scapula  on 
its  length  axis  occurring  when  the  movement  passes  through 
the  horizontal  position  (see  "Arm  raising  forward")  are  some- 
what reversed  during  the  last  stage,  as  the  arm  is  forced  into  the 
vertical  position. 

The  active  muscles  during  the  last  half  of  the  movement  (from 
the  horizontal  to  the  vertical)  are  (1)  the  posterior  and  central 
deltoid,  which,  aided  by  the  active  resistance  of  the  latissimus  and 
teres  major,  accomplishes  the  backward  movement  of  the  arm 
in  the  shoulder  joint  (corresponding  to  abduction  and  extension), 
and  also  contributes  to  the  rotation  outward  in  this  joint;  (2) 
the  infraspinatus  and  teres  minor,  which  are  chiefly  responsible 
for  this  rotation  outward;  (3)  the  trapezius,  whose  vigorous 
contraction,  aided  by  the  continued  action  of  the  serratus,  com- 
pletes the  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula ;  and  (4)  the  rhomboids 
(and  levator  anguli  scapulae),  which,  while  antagonistic  to  the 
rotation  upward,  help  the  trapezius  to  adduct  the  scapula  and 

*An  absolutely  vertical  position  of  the  upper  arm  is  probably  only  obtained  by  individ- 
uals with  exceptionally  free  mobility  in  the  joints  of  the  shoulder  girdle.  Mollier  is  of 
the  opinion  that  it  never  occurs  without  compensatory  trunk  movements. 


46  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

to  press  it  into  closer  apposition  to  the  back.  In  this,  during  the 
final  stage  of  the  movement,  they  are  associated  with  and  aided 
by  the  latissimus  through  its  pull  on  the  arm  in  a  backward- 
inward  (as  well  as  downward)  direction. 

Here,  as  in  "Arm  raising  sideways-upward,"  the  resistance  due 
to  stretching  of  ligaments  and  antagonistic  muscles  increases 
rapidly  during  the  last  stage  of  the  movement.  Limitations  of 
mobility  on  this  account,  or  insufficient  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
motor  muscles,  are  shown  by  the  same  faulty  or  incomplete  ter- 
minal position  as  was  described  in  "Arm  raising  sideways-up- 
ward." Compensatory  backward  bending  in  the  lumbar  spine  is 
here  even  more  marked,  especially  if  the  movement  is  done 
quickly,  or  with  weights  in  the  hands.  But  by  doing  it  quickly 
(without  weights)  and  taking  particular  care  not  to  hyperextend 
the  lower  back,  the  resistant  anterior  structures  may  be  subjected 
to  an  even  more  forcible  stretching  than  in  "Arm  raising  side- 
ways-upward." 

The  return  movement,  if  slow,  is  accomplished  by  gravity,  the 
former  motor  and  steadying  muscles  still  remaining  in  a  state  of 
contraction  (eccentric)  to  check  the  speed  and  determine  the  plane 
of  the  movement.  If  the  latter  is  done  quickly,  the  former  an- 
tagonistic muscles — latissimus,  teres  major,  pectoralis  major,  sub- 
scapularis  and  the  rotators  downward  of  the  scapula,  principally 
the  rhomboids  and  pectoralis  minor — contract  with  greater  vigor, 
while  the  deltoid,  supraspinatus,  inf  raspinatus,  teres  minor,  trape- 
zius  and  serratus  relax  more  or  less.  As  it  is  usually  desired  to 
work  the  latter  set  as  much  as  possible,  and  at  the  same  time 
to  stretch  the  pectorals  and  anterior  ligaments  of  the  shoulder 
joint,  the  return  to  the  fundamental  position  is  better  done 
through  the  side  plane  (sideways-downward).  The  whole  move- 
ment is  then  what  is  called  "Arm  Circumduction"  or  "Arm 
Circling." 

16.  Arm  stretching  upward,  following  "Arm  bending."  This, 
too,  brings  the  arms  to  the  same  terminal  position  as  does  "Arm 
raising  sideways-upward,"  viz.,  with  the  shoulder  joint  in  a  posi- 
tion of  complete  abduction  and  rotation  outward,  the  scapula 
completely  rotated  upward  and  the  forearm  supinated.  Starting, 
however,  from  the  position  reached  by  "Arm  bending,"  the  com- 
plete outward  rotation  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  the  supination  of 
the  forearm  have  already  taken  place.  "Arm  stretching  upward" 
involves  then,  further,  complete  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint, 
complete  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula,  and  extension  of  the 
elbow.  The  muscles  concerned  in  this  are  the  same  as  those 
responsible  for  the  same  elements  of  "Arm  raising  sideways- 
upward" — the  deltoid  and  supraspinatus  (and  biceps),  the  trape- 
zius  and  serratus  magnus — as  well  as  the  triceps.  The  rhom- 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  47 

boids,  although  antagonistic  to  the  upward  rotary  action  of  the 
trapezius,  by  their  adduction  of  the  scapula  contribute  an  im- 
portant share  in  the  effort  to  keep  the  arm  moving  through  or 
behind  the  lateral  plane  of  the  body,  and  in  keeping  it  well  back 
in  the  terminal  position.  The  deltoid  is  also  responsible  for 
this,  and  must  contract  with  utmost  vigor  to  accomplish  it.  In 
this  effort  to  keep  the  arm  back  the  active  resistance  offered  by 
the  latissimus  may  also  help  during  the  last  stage  of  the  move- 
ment. The  return  movement  of -"Arm  bending"  from  the  posi- 
tion with  arms  overhead,  whether  quick  or  slow,  involves  power- 
ful and  complete  contraction  of  the  adductors  of  the  shoulder 
joint — latissimus,  teres  major,  pectoralis  major  and  the  long 
head  of  the  triceps;  the  rotators  downward  of  the  scapula — 
rhomboids  (levator  anguli  scapulae)  and  pectoralis  minor:  and 
the  flexors  of  the  elbow — biceps  and  brachialis  anticus.  The 
rotators  outward  of  the  shoulder  joint  should  remain  in  a  state 
of  complete  contraction,  while  the  now  antagonistic  abductors 
of  the  shoulder  joint,  and  rotators  upward  of  the  scapula  con- 
tract "eccentrically"  more  or  less  according  to  the  speed  of  the 
movement. 

17.  Arm    stretching    sideways,    following    "Arm    bending." 
This  is  like  "Arm  raising  sideways,"  except  that,  starting  from  a 
position  with  the  arms  rotated  outward  and  the  elbow  flexed, 
there  is,  in  addition,  rotation  inward  in  the  shoulder  joint  and 
extension  in  the  elbow  joint.     This  means  action  of  the  corre- 
sponding muscles  added  to  the  muscular  mechanism  of  "Arm 
raising  sideways."     Otherwise,  the  action  of  motor,   steadying 
and  fixator  muscles  is  the  same  as  described  under  that  move- 
ment (see  page  30). 

The  return  movement  is  in  all  respects  similar  to  that  already 
described  under  "Arm  bending"  from  the  fundamental  position. 

18.  Arm   stretching   forivard,    following   "Arm   bending"    is 
like  "Arm  raising  forward,"  plus  rotation  inward  in  the  shoulder 
joint  and  extension  in  the  elbow  joint  with  the  corresponding 
muscular  action. 

The  return  movement  is  practically  the  same  as  "Arm  bend- 
ing" from  the  fundamental  position. 

19.  Arm  stretching  backward,  following  "Arm  bending."    The 
hands  are  thrust  downward  and  as   far  backward  as  possible 
without  disturbing  the  position  of  the  chest,  shoulders  and  back. 
It  involves,  therefore,  rotation  inward  and  hyperextension  in  the 
shoulder  joint.    The  motor  muscles  are  the  latissimus  dorsi,  teres 
major,  subscapularis  (pectoralis  major  and  the  anterior  deltoid). 
As  the  amount  of  hyperextension  in  the  shoulder  joint  is  very 
limited,  the  arm  cannot  go  far  behind  the  plane  of  the  back  with- 
out displacement  of  the  scapula.     When  the  movement  is  done 


48  GYMNASTIC  K1NES10LOGY 

vigorously,  this  is  extremely  likely  to  happen,  unless  guarded 
against  by  emphatic  admonitions.  The  displacement  of  the  scap- 
ula referred  to  is  of  a  particularly  undesirable  kind.  It  is  an  eleva- 
tion, combined  with  complete  rotation  downward  and,  besides,  a 
tilting  of  the  bone  so  that  its  upper  border  moves  forward,  causing 
the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  project,  while  its  lower  angle  moves 
backward  and  protrudes  markedly  under  the  skin.  This  dis- 
placement is  caused  by  the  excessive  action  of  the  latissimus  in  its 
effort  to  produce  hyperextension  combined  with  rotation  inward 
in  the  shoulder  joint.  The  coraco-humeral  ligament  and  anterior 
part  of  the  capsule  are  soon  tense,  and  further  action  of  the  latis- 
simus, with  good  leverage  through  the  arm,  pries  the  scapula  into 
the  tilted  position  described  above.  This  is  made  more  pro- 
nounced by  the  associated  action  of  the  levator  anguli  scapulae, 
which  pulls  the  upper  end  of  the  bone  somewhat  forward  as  well 
as  upward.  It  also  rotates  the  scapula  downward.  There  is 
probably  also  induced  contraction  of  the  other  rotators  downward 
of  the  scapula — rhomboids  and  pectoralis  minor.  The  action  of 
the  latter  tends  to  make  the  tilting  more  pronounced. 

To  check  this  tendency  to  scapular  displacements,  the  trapezius 
and  the  serrat.us  magnus  (lower  and  middle)  must  contract  pow- 
erfully. When  this  is  done  the  movement  may  be  as  quick  and 
energetic  as  the  individual  is  able  to  make  it.  Because  of  the 
peculiar  antagonistic  and  forcible  action  of  the  latissimus,  serratus 
and  pectorals,  all  of  which  are  attached  to  the  ribs,  the  chest 
expansion  is  very  extreme  in  this  exercise,  providing  it  is  properly 
done. 

The  distinctive  feature  of  all  the  arm  stretchings  in  the  differ- 
ent directions,  preceded  by  arm  bending,  is  that  they  are  capable 
of  being  done  with  great  speed  and  vigor.  This  favors  correct 
execution  by  calling  for  more  initial  intensity  of  the  muscular 
contractions,  and  by  forcibly  stretching  the  resistant  structures 
through  the  very  momentum  of  the  moving  arm.  This,  in  turn, 
is  helpful  in  insuring  completeness  of  movement  in  the  joints. 
To  make  it  count  for  as  much  as  possible  the  terminal  posi- 
tions should  be  held  for  at  least  a  brief  space  of  time.  Otherwise 
the  recoil  of  the  ligaments  and  muscles  whose  resistance  has  been 
overcome  would  tend  to  make  the  movements  oscillatory  in  char- 
acter, with  all  the  loss  of  effectiveness  that  this  implies.  To  avoid 
such  rebound  with  accompanying  muscular  relaxation,  it  is  of 
advantage  to  make  the  rhythm  uneven  by  doing  the  stretching 
movement  faster  than  the  bending,  and  by  holding  the  terminal 
position  reached  by  the  former  slightly  longer  than  that  reached 
by  the  latter. 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  49 


B.       SUSPENSION    EXERCISES. 

20.  The  Hanging  Position*  When  the  body  is  suspended  on 
the  arms  the  joints  of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  arm  remain  in  the 
positions  reached  by  "Arm  raising"  or  "Arm  stretching  upward," 
viz.,  complete  abduction  and  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder 
joint,  complete  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula  and  complete  supi- 
nation  of  the  forearm.  But  here  gravity,  instead  of  muscular 
contraction,  maintains  these  positions  of  the  joints. 

In  what  may  be  called  the  relaxed  hanging  position,  the  weight 
of  the  whole  body,  with  the  exception  of  the  arms,  is  passively 
suspended  on  the  ligaments  and  muscles  which  were  antagonistic 
in  "Arm  raising"  or  "Arm  stretching  upward,"  principally  the 
pectorals,  subscapularis,  latissimus,  teres  major  and  the  rhom- 
boids. All  these  are  subjected  to  strong  tension,  and  on  their 
relative  length,  tone  and  extensibility  will  depend  the  amount  of 
chest  expansion  and  straightening  of  the  back  produced.  When 
these  muscles  and  ligaments  are  short,  and  mobility  in  the  joints 
of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  upper  spine  limited,  the  posture  of  the 
back  and  chest  may  not  be  influenced  as  much  as  might  be 
expected  or  desired.  Of  course  frequent  and  prolonged  passive 
suspension  will  in  time  stretch  the  resistant  structures  somewhat 
and  so  make  possible  a  better  hanging  as  well  as  standing 
position. 

In  what  we  will  call  the  active  hanging  position,  the  tension  on 
the  resistant  structures  is  increased  by  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
individual  to  "throw  out  his  chest."  This  involves  here,  as 
always,  contraction  of  the  scapular  adductors  and  depressors. 
The  lower  and  middle  trapezius  and  rhomboids  act  most  directly 
and  effectively  in  this  effort.  The  latissimus  and  the  posterior 
and  central  portions  of  the  deltoid  also  aid  powerfully,  the  imme- 
diate purpose  of  their  contraction  being  to  bring  the  arms  and 
trunk  into  line.  As  the  arms  cannot  move  backward,  the  trunk 
must  move  forward  and  upward  between  the  shoulders,  so  to 
speak.  This  is  simply  another  way  of  describing  adduction  in  the 
shoulder  joint,  adduction,  depression  and  slight  rotation  down- 
ward of  the  scapula.  As  this  bone  cannot  really  move  much  in 
this  position,  the  arms  being  fixed,  the  trunk  is  here  the  moving 
segment.  Any  forward-upward  movement  of  the  trunk  means 
chest  expansion,  providing  the  back  is  kept  straight.  This  is  done 
by  the  contraction  of  the  erector  spinae  group,  which  is  usually,  if 
not  always,  associated  with  vigorous  contraction  of  the  scapular 
adductors  and  depressors.  When  the  action  of  all  these  muscles 
is  very  strong,  there  is  apt  to  be  an  excessive  arching  of  the 

*In  order  to  avoid  too  much  detail  it  will  be  assumed  that  the  position  is  taken  on  some 
such  apparatus  as  the  suspended  parallel  bars,  with  hands  facing  each  other. 


50 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


lower  back  and  sometimes  a 
slight  adduction  in  the  shoul- 
der joint  (spreading  of  the 
arms),  flexion  in  the  elbow 
and  some  real  rotation  down- 
ward of  the  scapula.  Any  or 
all  of  these  effects  may  be 
chiefly  due  to  the  excessive 
action 'of  the  latissimus  dorsi 
and  erector  spinse,  but  are 
probably  contributed  to  by  the 
combined  action  of  all  the 
muscles  enumerated,  as  well 
as  by  irresistible  associated 
contraction  of  the  pectorals 
and  biceps.  When  the  last 
three  are  innervated  suffi- 
ciently, arm  bending  or  "pull 
up"  is  the  result.  The  exces- 
sive arching  of  the  back  is 
difficult  to  eliminate,  as  the 
muscular  action  necessary  for 
this  must  now  take  place  un- 
der conditions  of  fixation  en- 
tirely different  from  normal, 
and  largely  the  reverse.  Any 
effort  to  straighten  the  hollow 
in  the  lower  back  usually  leads  to  a  general  rounding  of  the  whole 
back  and  raising  of  the  legs.  The  reason  for  this  is  the  diffi- 
culty, considerable  even  in  the  standing  position,  of  dissociating 
the  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles  from  that  of  the  pectorals 
and  hip  joint  flexors  under  these  changed  conditions  of  fixation. 
This  matter  will  be  further  discussed  under  "Arm  bending  from 
the  hanging  position." 

The  value  of  the  "hanging  position"  as  a  gymnastic  exercise 
depends  then  on  the  degree  to  which  it  is  "active"  in  the  sense 
described  above.  The  distance  between  the  hands  is  important  in 
this  connection.  For  the  well-built  individual  shoulder  distance 
will  do,  but  it  is  better  to  have  more  than  less.  The  position  with 
the  hands  close  together  usually  means  here,  as  in  "Arm  raising 
and  stretching  upward,"  a  failure  to  bring  the  arms  and  trunk 
into  line,  that  is,  insufficient  straightening  of  the  back  and  incom- 
plete chest  expansion  to  compensate  for  the  (then  artificially) 
limited  range  of  motion  in  the  joints  of  the  shoulder  girdle.  The 
spreading  of  the  arms  allows  them  to  move  further  backward,  or. 
what  is  the  same  thing,  allows  the  trunk  to  move  further  forward, 


FIGURE  15 
THE  ACTIVE  HANGING  POSITION 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  51 

by  the  contraction  of  the  scapular  adductors,  latissimus  and  del- 
toid. These  muscles  are  now  working  with  better  mechanical 
advantage,  less  obliquity  and  greater  leverage,  while  the  pectorals 
do  not  profit  correspondingly  by  increasing  the  distance  between 
the  arms.  For  what  they  gain  in  these  respects  in  the  lateral 
plane  by  the  spreading  of  the  arms  is  more  than  neutralized  by 
their  increased  obliquity  and  diminished  leverage  in  the  antero- 
posterior  plane  by  the  relatively  more  posterior  position  of  the 
arms.  In  fact,  the  chief  effect  of  this  on  the  pectorals  is  to 
maintain  and  even  increase  their  tension,  thereby  enhancing  the 
general  chest  expansion,  which  is  already  considerable  owing  to 
the  pull  of  the  latissimus,  the  stretching  of  the  lower  serratus  and 
the  strong  contraction  of  the  longitudinal  back  muscles. 

At  the  same  time,  by  increasing  the  distance  between  the  hands, 
the  weight  leverage  increases  relatively  more  than  the  muscular 
leverage.  This,  together  with  the  better  opportunity  for  work 
offered  the  trapezius,  deltoid,  latissimus  and  rhomboids,  and  the 
undiminished  static  (or  even  eccentric)  contraction  of  the  pec- 
torals, tends  to  make  the  position  with  the  hands  far  apart 
decidedly  "active." 

21.  Suspension  exercises  derived  from  or  similar  to  the  hang- 
ing position.  What  has  been  said  regarding  the  hanging  position 
applies  equally  to  exercises  derived  from  it,  such  as  hand  traveling 
forward,  backward  and  sideways,  with  straight  arms,  on  the 
ladders,  suspended  parallel  bars,  boom,  etc. ;  or  variations  such 
as  swinging  and  traveling  on  the  rings ;  or  suspension  exercises 
with  additions  such  as  knee-upward  bending  and  leg  raising.  In 
the  last  named  the  additional  elements  involve  the  joints  and 
muscles  of  the  lower  trunk  and  will  again  be  referred  to. 

In  hand  traveling  the  weight  of  the  whole  body  is  suspended  a 
varying  length  of  time  on  one  arm.  When  this  period  is  of  brief 
duration,  as  in  straight,  forward  or  backward  traveling  by  very 
short  "steps"  on  the  horizontal  ladder  or  suspended  parallel  bars, 
there  is  only  a  slight  difference  from  the  "hanging  position," 
chiefly  one  of  degree,  in  the  action  of  the  muscles  concerned. 
This  may,  in  the  case  of  individuals  with  relatively  weak  shoulder 
and  trunk  muscles  and  considerable  weight,  be  enough  to  pre- 
clude success.  The  scapular  muscles  on  the  supporting  side  in 
conjunction  with  the  abdominal  and  back  muscles  on  the  opposite 
side  are  then  not  able  to  hold  the  body  rigid  long  enough,  nor  to 
give  it  sufficient  twist  (which  is  chiefly  a  rotation  outward  or 
inward  in  the  shoulder  joint  of  the  supporting  side)  to  allow 
the  released  hand  to  be  shifted. 

In  traveling  on  the  rings  the  body  is  in  what  we  have  called  the 
relaxed  hanging  position,  on  one  arm,  the  greater  part  of  the 
swinging  period,  with  nearly  complete  rotation  upward,  eleva- 


52  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

tion  and  especially  abduction  of  the  scapula,  as  well  as  abduc- 
tion in  the  shoulder  joint.  The  successful  grasping  of  the  next 
ring  depends  partly  on  the  skillful  management  of  momentum 
(including  the  twist),  gained  in  releasing  the  last  ring,  partly  on 
a  sufficiently  powerful  and  well-timed  effort  to  produce  rotation 
outward  in  the  shoulder  joint  of  the  supporting  side  (if  the  turn 
is  forward,  inward  if  the  turn  is  backward).  This  is  combined 
with  a  rising  movement  of  the  trunk,  corresponding  to  a  slight 
rotation  upward  of  the  scapula  on  the  same  side.  There  is  also 
some  real  twisting  of  the  trunk  towards  this  side.  The  latter 
is  sometimes  aided  by  a  scissors-like  movement  with  the  legs 
to  furnish  the  necessary  momentum. 

Rotary  traveling  forward  or  backward  on  ladder,  bars  or  boom 
is  practically  identical  with  traveling  on  the  rings,  except  that 
the  swinging  period  is  briefer. 

All  exercises  of  the  character  indicated  by  the  examples  given 
are  extremely  valuable  for  improving  the  posture  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  body,  for  increasing  the  mobility  of  the  chest  and 
training  the  mechanical  part  of  the  respiratory  organs,  as  well  as 
for  strengthening  and  developing  the  musculature  of  the  upper 
trunk,  shoulders  and  arms.  They  require  comparatively  little 
skill  and  include  types  easy  enough  for  the  weakest.  To  produce 
the  greatest  benefit  they  must,  however,  be  done  with  due  regard 
to  good  form,  i.e.,  posture,  and  be  of  the  "active"  rather  than  the 
"relaxed"  variety. 

22.  Arm  bending  from  the  hanging  position.  As  in  "Arm 
bending"  from  the  fundamental  standing  position,  there  are  many 
variations  of  this  movement,  e.g.,  with  reverse  grasp,  ordinary 
(over)  grasp,  combined  grasp;  with  elbows  moving  forward,  or 
more  or  less  sideways;  hands  close  together  or  far  apart.  The 
most  common  is  the  familiar  "pull-up"  or  "chinning  the  bar," 
usually  done  with  the  reverse  grasp,  sometimes  with  one  hand  on 
each  side  of  the  bar,  generally  with  the  hands  less  than  shoulder 
distance  apart,  and  always  with  elbows  moving  forward.  The 
reverse  grasp  will  be  assumed  in  analyzing  the  movement. 

In  the  hanging  position  with  the  reverse  grasp,  the  weight  of 
the  body  may  be  said  to  be  suspended  on  the  (flexors  and) 
extensors,  adductors  and  rotators  inward  of  the  shoulder  joint, 
the  adductors,  depressors  and  rotators  downward  of  the  scapula, 
and  the  flexors  of  the  elbow.  When  the  tone  of  these  muscles 
is  good,  the  ligaments  are  not  called  upon  to  bear  much  weight, 
unless  the  body  is  suddenly  dropped  into  this  position.  The 
reverse  grasp  demands  more  twisting  of  the  arm  than  can  be 
met  by  even  the  most  extreme  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder 
joint  and  supination  of  the  forearm.  This  necessitates  a  supple- 
mentary adjustment  of  the  humerus,  scapula  and  trunk,  relative 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


53 


to  each  other,  equivalent  to  a  small  amount  of  flexion  in  the 
shoulder  joint  (moving  the  arms  forward-downward)  with  a 
forced  abduction  and  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula,  as  well  as 
a  tilting  of  this  bone,  bringing  it  to  a  position  on  the  side  and 
top  of  the  chest,  with  its  lower  angle  projecting  in  the  posterior 
axilla.  This  adjustment  is  caused  in  the  first  instance  by  the 
forcible  stretching  of  the  pectoralis  major,  subscapularis  and 
teres  major,  all  producing  rotation  inward  in  the  shoulder  joint, 
and  by  their  tension  checking  rotation  outward. 

Arm  bending  from  this  position,  ^vith  the  elbows  moving  for- 
ward, is  a  flexion  in  the  elbow,  partial  flexion,  followed  by  exten- 
sion and  rotation  inward  in  the  shoulder  joint,  and  a  rotation 
downward  with  incomplete  ad- 
duction and  depression  of  the 
scapula.  The  muscles  which 
bring  about  the  movement  are  the 
pectoralis  major  and  minor,  the 
subscapularis,  the  latissimus  dorsi 
and  teres  major,  the  rhomboids, 
biceps  and  brachialis  anticus. 

The  extreme  abduction  of  the 
scapula  induced  by  the  reverse 
grasp  places  the  humerus  in  such 
a  position  that  the  pull  of  the 
pectoralis  major,  latissimus,  sub- 
scapularis and  teres  major  will 
more  readily  move  it  forward- 
downward  than  in  any  other 
direction.  This  plane  of  the 
movement  offers  the  most  favor- 
able mechanical  conditions — least 
obliquity  and  best  leverage — for 
all  the  muscles,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  latissimus.  This 
works  perhaps  equally  well  when  the  arm  moves  in  the  lateral 
plane.  The  pectoralis  minor,  too,  is  able  to  work  to  best  advan- 
tage with  the  scapula  in  this  position  of  extreme  abduction,  its 
action  being  then  most  direct  and  effective  in  producing  rotation 
downward  of  the  scapula.  Finally,  the  weight  leverage  increases 
at  a  less  rapid  rate  when  the  arms  move  forward  than  is  the  case 
when  they  move  in  a  more  lateral  plane.  This  reduction  (or 
rather,  least  possible  increase)  of  weight  leverage  is  made  possi- 
ble by  the  forward  movement  of  the  lower  part  of  the  trunk  and 
legs  to  compensate  for  the  backward  movement  of  the  head, 
shoulders  and  upper  trunk,  thus  keeping  the  weight  of  the  body 
as  a  whole  well  under  the  points  of  support.  The  forward  move- 


FlGURE   16 

ARM   BENDING  FROM  THE  HANGING 
POSITION  WITH  REVERSE  GRASP 


54  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

ment  of  the  lower  trunk  is  in  part  due  to  the  pull  of  the  latissi- 
mus,  whose  fibres  run  forward  and  upward  when  the  arm  moves 
forward,  partly  to  the  almost  involuntary  contraction  of  the 
abdominal  muscles.  This  in  turn  induces  contraction  of  the 
flexors  of  the  hip  joint,  being  at  all  times  even  more  intimately 
associated,  functionally,  with  the  abdominal  muscles  than  the 
latter  are  with  the  pectorals.  The  result  of  all  this  is  not  only 
to  draw  the  body  forward  sufficiently  to  reduce  the  weight 
leverage  to  a  minimum,  but  even  to  overdo  it,  by  raising  the  legs 
forward.  This  necessitates  displacement  of  an  equal  amount  of 
weight  backward,  accomplished  by  extreme  rounding  of  the  upper 
back,  with  accompanying  contraction  of  the  chest.  The  last  two 
features  may,  however,  be  somewhat  obviated  by  conscious  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  individual  to  keep  his  chest  expanded  and 
to  refrain  from  raising  the  legs.  In  any  case,  a  better  position 
of  the  back,  chest  and  scapulae  may  be  obtained  by  keeping  the 
hands  far  apart.  But  this  also  makes  the  exercise  harder,  because 
the  elbows  are  not  then  moved  forward  as  readily,  and  the 
mechanical  conditions  are  less  favorable  (see  below). 

Another  feature  usually  occurring  in  this  exercise  is  the  marked 
forward  position  of  the  head.  It  is  partly  a  result  of  the  back- 
ward convexity  of  the  upper  thoracic  spine,  partly  due  to  the 
strong  pull  of  the  sterno-mastoid  and  the  other  anterior  neck 
muscles,  which,  like  the  abdominal  muscles,  are  closely  associated 
with  the  pectorals.  This  fault  is  often  exaggerated  by  the  indi- 
vidual's desire  to  "chin"  the  bar  in  the  traditionally  approved 
style. 

On  account  qf  the  strong  tendency  to  a  poor  position  of  the 
shoulder  blades,  chest,  back  and  head  in  this  form  of  the  move- 
ment, it  is  of  no  value  as  a  corrective  exercise,  if  it  does  not, 
indeed,  work  the  other  way.  But  it  is  useful  in  developing  and 
strengthening  the  chest  and  arm  muscles,  as  it  always  involves 
complete  and  powerful  contraction  of  these  muscles.  Because  the 
resistance  to  be  overcome — the  whole  body  weight — is  so  great, 
relative  to  the  size  and  leverage  of  the  muscles,  the  latter  are 
soon  fatigued,  and  the  average  man  can  repeat  the  exercise  only 
a  comparatively  small  number  of  times,  while  the  majority  of 
women  and  many  men  cannot  do  it  at  all,  although  it  is  the  easiest 
type  of  "Arm  bending  from  the  hanging  position." 

Arm  bending  with  ordinary  grasp,  elbows  moving  sideways. 
When  the  exercise  is  done  with  the  ordinary  grasp — hands  on  the 
near  side  of  the  bar  (overgrasp)  and  at  least  shoulder  distance 
apart — there  is  not  such  extreme  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder 
joint  with  the  resultant  forced  abduction  of  the  scapula.  The 
elbows  do  not  tend  to  move  as  far  forward  as  when  the  reverse 
grasp  is  used,  although  they  can  be  made  to  do  so  by  conscious 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


effort.  On  the  other  hand,  they 
can  be  more  readily  moved  in  or 
near  the  transverse  plane  of  the 
body ;  but  conscious  effort  is  needed 
here,  too. 

This  type  of  the  exercise  calls 
for  vigorous  action  of  the  del- 
toid (posterior  and  central  por- 
tions) and  the  latissimus  dorsi 
reenforced  by  the  associated  con- 
traction of  the  scapular  adductors, 
trapezius  and  rhomboids.  The 
scapula  is  thereby  kept  in  good 
apposition  to  the  back  during  its 
rotation  downward,  which,  it  will 
be  remembered,  is  a  part  of  the 
arm  bending.  This  puts  the  pec- 
toralis  minor,  one  of  the  rotators 
downward  of  the  scapula,  at  a 
its  pull  very  oblique  and  somewhat 
"around  the  corner"  (the  side  of 
mechanical  disadvantage,  making 
the  upper  chest).  Thus  a  large 
part  of  its  force  is  spent  in  traction 
on  the  ribs  to  which  it  is  attached 
(third,  fourth  and  fifth),  leading  to  their  elevation.  The  lateral 
plane  of  the  arm  movement  puts  the  pectoralis  major,  too,  at  a 
mechanical  disadvantage,  keeping  the  majority  of  its  fibres  very 
nearly  in  line  with  the  humerus  and  close  to  the  shoulder  joint. 
Moreover,  as  the  movement  progresses,  the  weight  leverage 
increases  much  more  rapidly  than  the  leverage  of  the  latissimus, 
biceps,  rhomboids  and  trapezius.  Here  the  "curling  up"  of  the 
trunk  and  legs  is  of  no  advantage.  Because  of  this  rapidly 
increasing  weight  leverage,  in  addition  to  the  poor  leverage  and 
oblique  pull  of  the  pectorals,  arm  bending  with  the  elbows  moving 
in  the  side  plane  is  a  much  harder  exercise  than  arm  bending  with 
the  reverse  grasp  and  elbows  moving  forward.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  the  contraction  of  the  pectorals,  while  not  being  of  much 
help  in  the  production  of  the  movement,  is  an  important  factor 
in  the  forcible  expansion  of  the  upper  chest.  This,  as  well  as 
straightening  and  flattening  of  the  back,  is  a  marked  feature  in 
this  type  of  arm  bending,  because  of  the  strong  contraction  of  the 
scapular  depressors  and  the  longitudinal  back  muscles. 

The  unfavorable  mechanical  conditions  in  this  type  of  arm 
bending  make  it  more  difficult  and  severe  than  any  other.  But 
these  same  conditions  bring  about  the  kind  of  muscular  interplay 


FIGURE  17 

ARM  BENDING  FROM  THE  HANGING 
POSITION  WITH  ORDINARY  GRASP 


56 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


which  is  most  effective  for  purposes  of  postural  improvement, 
namely,  forcible  stretching  of  the  anterior  ligaments  and  the 
pectorals — the  latter  being  made  very  tense  in  their  efforts  to 
contract — and  complete  shortening  against  great  resistance  of  the 
scapular  adductors  and  posterior  depressors  and  rotators  down- 
ward. For  purposes  of  developing  the  musculature  of  the  upper 
trunk  and  extremity,  this  exercise  is  at  least  as  effective  as  any 
type  of  arm  bending.  There  is  this  drawback,  however:  being 
so  hard  to  do,  there  are  many  people  who  have  not  the  requisite 
strength  to  even  attempt  it.'  To  acquire  the  strength,  milder 
exercises  with  the  same  muscular  mechanism  may  be  practiced, 
such  as  arm  bending  with  the  overhead  pulley  weights ;  or  modi- 
fications where  a  part  of  the  weight  is  borne  by  the  legs,  such  as 
"Arm  stretching  and  bending  with  knee  bending  and  stretching," 
done  standing,  with  the  bar,  rings,  ropes,  etc.,  at  the  height  of 
the  chin ;  or  arm  bending  from  the  "Fall  hanging  position,"  with 
the  rigid  body  inclined  more  or  less  and  supported  in  front  on 
the  heels  (see  below).  Both  of  these  exercises,  while  more 
complex  in  their  mechanism  and  more  general  in  their  distribu- 
tion of  muscular  work,  are  relatively  easy  as  far  as  coordination 
is  concerned.  As  regards  the  amount  of  local  muscular  work 
they  may  be  graded  to  suit  every  individual. 

23.     The  Fall  hanging  position,  referred  to  above,  involves  the 

lower  trunk  and  hip  regions 
to  a  considerable  extent.  As 
regards  the  shoulder,  the 
joints  are  in  approximately 
the  same,  positions  as  are 
reached  by  "Arm  raising  for- 
ward," viz.,  flexion  in  the 
shoulder  joint,  abduction,  ro- 
tation upward  and  some  ele- 
vation of  the  scapula.  The 
arms  being  fixed,  the  trunk, 
held  rigid  by  the  longitudinal 
back  muscles,  tends  to  drop 
down  between  the  shoulder 
blades.  This  is  prevented  by 
the  latissimus  and  the  scapu- 
lar adductors,  trapezius  and 
rhomboids,  together  forming 
a  sort  of  sling  in  which  a  part 
of  the  body  weight  is  sus- 
pended. The  other  part  is  sup- 
ported on  the  heels,  the  hip 
FIGURE  is  joint  being  kept  extended  by 

THE  FALL  HANGING  POSITION  glutei  and  hamstring  muscles. 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


57 


Here,  as  in  the  "hanging  position,"  the  exercise  may  be  more  or 
less  relaxed,  involving  merely  passive  tension  on  the  above  named 
muscles.  It  is  then  of  little  value.  But  it  becomes  a  good  cor- 
rective exercise  when  the  proper  muscular  action — vigorous  con- 
traction of  the  adductors  and  depressors  of  the  scapula  and  the 
upper  prolongations  of  the  erector  spinse— is  induced  by  efforts 
to  raise  the  chest  and  to  throw  the  head  back  with  "chin  drawn 
in."  It  is  also  suitable  as  a  preliminary  to  the  more  typical 
suspension  exercises.  This  is  even  more  true  of  the  following. 

24.  Arm  bending  from  the 
Fall  hanging  position.  As  in 
arm  bending  from  the  "hang- 
ing position"  the  elbows  may 
move  through  any  plane 
between  the  antero-posterior 
and  the  lateral. 

When  the  elbows  move  for- 
ward there  is  extension  in  the 
shoulder  joint,  rotation  down- 
ward with  very  little  adduc- 
tion of  the  scapula,  and 
flexion  in  the  elbow.  The 
motor  muscles  are  the  pec- 
torals, working  with  good 
leverage  and  decreasing  ob- 
liquity; the  lastissimus  dorsi 
and  teres  major,  also  with 
favorable  mechanical  condi- 
tions; the  rhomboids  and 
trapezius,  at  a  disadvantage 
and  unable  to  produce  much 
scapular  adduction,  having  to 
contend  against  gravity  as 
well  as  the  more  powerful 
and  mechanically  better  favored  pectorals.  The  biceps  and  other 
flexors  of  the  elbow  are  of  course  also  active.  This  is  the  easiest 
way  to  do  the  arm  bending  and,  as  usual  when  that  is  the  case, 
the  least  favorable  for  good  posture  of  the  chest  and  back. 

When  the  elbows  move  sideways  there  is  a  movement  cor- 
responding to  abduction  combined  with  extension  in  the  shoulder 
joint,  adduction  with  partial  rotation  downward  of  the  scapula, 
and  flexion  in  the  elbow.  There  should  also  be  conscious  effort 
to  depress  the  scapula,  because  the  tendency  here,  as  in  "forward 
bending  of  arms,"  is  to  raise  the  shoulders,  the  muscular  action 
being  very  much  the  same  as  in  the  latter  movement.  The  deltoid 
and  supraspinatus  contract  vigorously,  as  do  also  the  latissimus, 


FIGURE  19 

ARM  BENDING  FROM  THE  FALL  HANGING 
POSITION 


58  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

teres  major,  trapezius  .and  rhomboids.  The  flexors  of  the  elbow 
contribute  their  share,  as  in  the  preceding  movement.  The  pec- 
torals, however,  are  less  active,  and  even  if  they  contract,  phy- 
siologically, they  do  not  shorten  much,  if  at  all,  and  may  even  be 
somewhat  stretched  if  the  depression  of  the  shoulders  with  the 
accompanying  chest  expansion  is  forcible  enough. 

25.  Climbing  on  the  vertical  ropes.     As  far  as  the  shoulder 
region  is  concerned  the  mechanism  of  this  exercise  is  like  that  of 
"Arm  bending  from  the  hanging  position"  with  the  reverse  grasp, 
hands  close  together  and  elbows  moving  forward.     When  prop- 
erly done,  the  arms  are  relieved  of  a  part  of  the  weight  during 
their   bending  by   the   simultaneous    straightening   of   the   legs, 
which  have  been  previously  drawn  up  and  made  to  grasp  the  rope. 

To  favor  a  better  position  of  the  chest,  shoulders  and  back, 
the  exercise  may  be  done  on  two  ropes.  This  gives  opportunity 
to  move  the  arms  in  the  side  plane,  because  of  the  greater  dis- 
tance between  the  hands.  With  a  little  practice  the  leg  grasp  is 
not  much  more  difficult  than  when  a  single  rope  is  used.  This 
modification  of  the  exercise  changes  the  muscular  action  in  a  way 
already  described  under  "Arm  bending  from  the  hanging  posi- 
tion" with  overgrasp  and  hands  far  apart.  When  the  ability 
has  been  acquired  to  shift  the  hands  simultaneously  and  to  hold, 
momentarily,  an  erect  hanging  position  just  before  the  legs  are 
raised,  the  exercise  has  considerable  corrective  value,  something 
the  ordinary  form  of  climbing,  on  one  rope,  lacks  entirely. 

26.  Starting  the  swing  from  the  hanging  position.    This  is  an 
excellent  suspension  movement  in  itself  and  is,  besides,  a  neces- 
sary  preliminary   to   many   exercises   on   suspension   apparatus. 
Like  some  of  the  preceding  and  following  exercises,  it  involves,  of 
course,  more  muscles  and  joints  than  those  of  the  shoulder  region 
and  upper  trunk,  but  the  action  of  the  latter  only  will  be  analyzed 
in  detail. 

The  exercise  may  be  described  as  consisting  of  three  parts  or 
phases,  following  each  other  without  any  appreciable  pause.  1. 
The  first  is  an  ordinary  arm  bending,  varying  in  degree  accord- 
ing to  the  amount  of  swing  desired.  The  mechanism  of  this  has 
already  been  given.  2.  Next  the  legs  are  raised,  preferably  with 
straight  knees,  by  a  flexion  in  the  hips  and  lower  back.  This 
involves  the  flexors  of  the  hip  joint  and  the  abdominal  muscles. 
At  the  same  time  the  arms  are  straightened,  the  head  is  thrown 
back,  and  the  upper  spine  is  extended  or  at  any  rate  held  rigid. 
This  lowering  of  the  head  and  shoulders  with  straightening  of 
the  elbows  brings  the  shoulder  joint  in  a  position  of  partial 
flexion,  with  a  partial  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula.  It 
serves  to  counterbalance  the  weight  of  the  raised  legs  and  lower 
trunk,  and  to  deflect  in  a  backward  direction  the  more  or  less 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  59 

upward  momentum  acquired  by  their  sudden  elevation.  At  this 
moment,  the  trunk  is  in  an  approximately  horizontal  position. 
The  muscles  which  were  instrumental  in  producing  the  arm  bend- 
ing— the  pectorals,  latissimus,  rhomboids  and  biceps — are  all,  with 
the  exception  of  the  latissimus,  in  a  state  of  moderate  static  con- 
traction. The  same  is  true  also  of  the  upper  and  middle  trapezius. 
The  former,  after  their  initial  contraction,  which  raised  the  body 
to  the  bent  arm  hanging  position,  have  yielded  sufficiently  to 
gravity  and  the  pull  of  the  latissimus  to  allow  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  to  drop  to  this  position.  The  latissimus,  on  the  con- 
trary, has  contracted  with  increased  intensity  and  has  thereby 
been  chiefly  instrumental  in  raising  the  lower  trunk  almost  to  a 
level  with  the  shoulders  and  head,  the  sudden  drop  of  this  portion 
of  the  body,  acting  as  a  counter-weight,  having  been  the  other 
factor.  3.  The  backward-upward  momentum,  attained  in  the 
first  two  parts  of  the  exercise,  is  soon  overcome  by  gravity.  With 
the  recoil,  and  the  muscular  efforts  made  to  reenforce  it,  begins 
the  third  part  of  the  exercise.  This  consists  of  a  quick,  partial 
bending,  followed  immediately  by  straightening  of  the  elbow 
and  a  simultaneous  extension  in  the  hip  joint,  arching,  or  at  least 
straightening  of  the  lower  back  (previously  flexed)  and  a  forward 
projection  of  the  whole  body,  now  straight  and  rigid,  which  is 
equivalent  to  a  forward-upward  arm  raising.  This  means  addi- 
tional flexion  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  rotation  upward  of  the 
scapula.  The  muscles  on  whose  well-timed  and  orderly  response 
the  successful  execution  of  this  part  of  the  exercise  depends  are 
the  hip  and  back  extensors ;  the  biceps  and  other  elbow  flexors ; 
the  upper  pectoralis  major  and  the  anterior  deltoid;  the  trapezius 
and  serratus  magnus.  Their  contraction  must  be  quick  and  pow- 
erful and  must  cease  promptly  when  the  movement  has  progressed 
to  a  point  where  continued  action  would  check  the  momentum 
gained.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  biceps,  the  upper  pec- 
toralis major  and  the  anterior  deltoid.  As  soon  as  the  last  two 
cease  contracting,  the  central  and  posterior  portions  of  the  del- 
toid begin.  The  hip  and  back  extensors  remain  contracted 
throughout  to  insure  the  necessary  rigidity  of  the  body  as  a  whole. 
The  forward  momentum  gained  in  this  way  may  be  very  con- 
siderable, even  amounting  to  a  forward-upward  projection  of  the 
body.  In  any  case,  it  is  the  principal  force  responsible  for  the 
completion  of  the  flexion  and  the  succeeding  extension  with 
abduction  (i.e.,  the  forward-upward  movement  of  the  arms)  in 
the  shoulder  joint  and  the  rotation  upward  with  elevation, 
of  the  scapula,  by  which  the  arms  and  body  are  brought  into 
line.  At  this  point  the  body  is  in  what  might  be  called  the  "hori- 
zontal hanging  position"  and  the  starting  of  the  swing  has  been 
accomplished. 


60 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


The  swing  may  be  continued,  pendulum-fashion,  without  fur- 
ther muscular  effort  until  the  momentum  has  been  exhausted. 
Or  the  exercise  may  be  finished  by  an  immediate  forward  dis- 
mount simply  by  letting  go  with  the  hands  and  arching  the  back 
somewhat ;  or,  by  a  dismount  at  the  end  of  the  first  backward  or 
the  next  forward  swing;  or  other  movements  may  be  performed 
at  the  end  of  a  forward  or  backward  swing. 

The  exercise  may  be  started  by  jumping,  from  behind  the  bar, 
to  the  bent  arm  hanging  position.  This  serves  the  double  purpose 
of  facilitating  the  arm  bending  and  furnishing  additional  forward 
momentum.  It  is  of  advantage  when  the  muscular  strength  and 
control  of  the  individual  are  inadequate  for  an  effective  start 
from  the  hanging  position.  It  is  also  more  suitable  when  it  is 
desired  to  finish  the  exercise  by  an  immediate  forward  dismount, 
when  it  is  called  the  "swing  jump"  or  "short  underswing."  The 
mechanism  in  this  modification  is  essentially  the  same  as  that 
described  above. 

27.  Circling  the  bar 
to  Front  Rest.  Return 
by  forward  circle.  Like 
the  "starting  of  the 
swing,"  this  exercise 
may  be  done  from  the 
hanging  position,  or  it 
may  be  started  by  jump- 
ing, usually  from  be- 
hind the  bar,  to  the  bent 
arm  hanging  position. 
The  latter  method  is  the 
easier  of  the  two,  and 
will  be  assumed,  espe- 
cially as  the  former  has 
already  been  described. 
To  simplify  analysis, 
the  exercise  may  be 
considered  as  composed 
of  four  parts,  as  fol- 
lows: 1.  Jumping  to  the 
bent  arm  hanging  posi- 
tion. This  is  in  all  re- 
spects like  arm  bending 
from  hanging  position, 

except  that  the  momentum  given  by  the  jump  lessens  the  resist- 
ance to  be  overcome  by  the  working  muscles — latissimus  and  teres 
major,  pectorals,  rhomboids  and  biceps.  2.  Lowering  the  head 
and  shoulders  and  at  the  same  time  raising  the  legs ;  the  former 


FIGURE  20 

CIRCLING  BAR  TO  FRONT  REST. 
FOURTH  STAGE 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  61 

by  a  straightening  of  the  elbows  and  a  slight  forward  movement 
of  the  arms,  equivalent  to  a  momentary  partial  flexion  in  the 
shoulder  joint  and  a  partial  upward  rotation,  with  abduction,  of 
the  scapula,  followed  immediately  by  the  opposite  movements; 
the  latter  by  a  bending  at  the  hips,  accompanied  by  more  or  less 
flexion  in  the  lumbar  and  thoracic  portions  of  the  spine.  All 
this  must  be  done  very  quickly  in  order  to  Attain  sufficient 
momentum  to  carry  the  legs  past  the  vertical.  It  is  accomplished 
by  the  sudden  contraction  of  the  flexors  of  the  hip  joint,  and  the 
abdominal  muscles  in  front;  by  the  latissimus  and  teres  major, 
upper  erector  spinse  and  posterior  neck  muscles  behind.  The 
latter  are,  of  course,  aided  by  gravity.  At  the  same  time 
the  pectorals,  rhomboids  and  biceps,  active  during  the  first 
part  of  the  exercise,  yield  momentarily  to  gravity  and  to  the 
pull  of  the  upper  back  muscles,  contracting  (eccentrically)  only 
sufficiently  to  regulate  the  speed  of  the  drop  of  the  head  and 
shoulders.  When  this  has  occurred  they  all,  with  the  exception 
of  the  biceps,  contract  again  for  a  moment  to  aid  the  latissimus 
and  teres  major  in  bringing  the  trunk  to  the  vertical  position,  close 
to  the  arms.  The  body  is  now  in  the  inverted  hanging  position, 
bent  at  the  hips,  the  front  of  the  thighs  in  contact  with  the  bar.  3. 
If  properly  managed  so  far,  the  next  stage  of  the  exercise 
should  begin  immediately,  before  the  momentum  gained  in  the 
second  part  has  been  entirely  spent.  It  consists  of  a  quick  arm 
bending,  associated  this  time  (owing  to  the  inverted  position  of 
the  body)  with  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  rotation 
upward  with  some  elevation  of  the  scapula.  The  motor  muscles 
are,  therefore,  the  biceps,  the  deltoid  and  supraspinatus ;  the 
trapezius  and  serratus  magnus.  The  upper  pectoralis  major 
probably  also  helps,  at  least  in  the  beginning.  These  muscles 
continue  to  contract  until  the  body  has  been  lifted  high  enough 
to  bring  the  anterior  spines  of  ilium  opposite  the  bar.  A  partial 
flexion  at  the  hips  having  been  maintained,  the  legs  have  now 
passed  the  bar  and  are  beginning  to  overbalance  the  trunk.  This 
marks  the  beginning  of  4,  the  last  stage  of  the  exercise.  The 
body  is  now  gradually  straightened  by  contraction  of  the  exten- 
sors of  the  hip  joint  and  spine.  Following  closely,  the  elbows 
are  also  gradually  straightened  and  the  arms  are  brought  to  the 
sides.  This  is  accomplished  by  reversing  the  muscular  action  in 
the  shoulder  region,  the  muscles  active  in  the  third  stage  relax- 
ing, while  the  opposite  set — latissimus  and  teres  major,  pectorals, 
rhomboids  and  triceps — are  thrown  into  action.  The  trapezius 
(central  and  lower  portions),  however,  should  remain  strongly 
contracted,  to  aid  the  rhomboids  in  keeping  the  scapula  adducted. 
If  these  muscular  efforts  are  well  timed  and  are  made  in  proper 
sequence,  the  now  straight  and  rigid  body  revolves  into  a  posi- 


62 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


tion  of  45°  inclination  and  is  at  the  same  time  lifted  until  the 
front  of  the  thighs  rests  on  the  bar  and  supports  a  part  of  the 
weight.  If  the  momentum  and  balance  are  not  skillfully  man- 
aged— as  by  straightening  the  hips  too  soon,  or  too  late,  or  too 
suddenly,  or  by  waiting  too  long  before  beginning  to  straighten 
the  elbows — there  may  be  many  a  hitch  in  the  proceedings,  some- 
times resulting. in  a  return  to  the  floor  in  reverse  order,  i.e.,  by 
an  involuntary  forward  circle;  or  else  the  body,  having  begun 
to  revolve,  gathers  too  great  momentum,  passes  the  45°  angle 
and  descends  to  the  floor  on  the  side  of  the  bar  from  which  the 
start  was  made,  unless  the  performer  has  the  strength  to  check 
it  by  a  tardy,  and  therefore  extreme,  contraction  of  the  extensors 
of  hip,  back,  elbow  and  shoulder,  and  the  rotators  downward 
of  the  scapula. 

The  return  by  a  forward 
circle,  already  mentioned  as 
liable  to  occur  involuntarily, 
before  the  final  position  on 
the  bar  has  been  reached,  is 
started  by  a  partial  relaxation 
of  the  triceps,  latissimus  and 
teres  major,  pectorals  and 
rhomboids.  Gravity  then 
causes  the  flexion  in  the 
elbow,  abduction  in  the  shoul- 
der joint,  and  rotation  up- 
ward of  the  scapula.  As  a 
result,  -  the  body  is  lowered 
until  the  hip  joints  are  oppo- 
site the  bar.  At  the  same 
time,  these  joints  are  moder- 
ately flexed  and  the  back 
slightly  curved  (the  latter  is 
not  necessary,  but  is  difficult 
to  avoid).  This  is  also 
caused  by  gravity,  the  hip  and 
back  extensors  yielding  suffi- 
ciently to  allow  it.  If  the 
flexion  is  not  too  great  at 
first,  the  weight  of  the  trunk 
now  overbalances  that  of 
the  legs  and  the  body  begins 

to  revolve.  Too  great  a  momentum  is  guarded  against  by  a  fur- 
ther flexion  at  the  hips,  so  that  the  front  of  the  thighs  remains 
in  contact  with  the  bar.  The  overturning  of  the  trunk  then  takes 
place  as  follows:  First,  the  trunk  descends,  head  foremost,  until 


FIGURE  21 

CIRCLING  BAR  TO  FRONT  REST,  THIRD 

STAGE:  OR,  FORWARD  CIRCLE  FROM 

FRONT  REST.  SECOND  STAGE 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  63 

the  arms  are  straight;  the  biceps,  deltoid,  serratus  and  trapezius 
are  actively  resisting,  but  yielding  to  gravity  sufficiently  to  check 
too  sudden  a  drop.  Next,  the  hips  are  lowered,  with  continued 
flexion  in  order  to  keep  the  legs  close  to  the  bar,  until  the  toes 
are  opposite  the  latter.  This  movement  involves  flexion  in  the 
shoulder  joint  (moving  the  arms  forward-upward)  and  rotation 
upward  of  the  scapula.  Gravity  is  the  motor  force,  and  the 
active  muscles  are  those  which  resist  the  movement,  viz.,  the 
extensors  of  the  shoulder  joint — pectoralis  major,  latissimus  and 
teres  major — and  the  rotators  do\vnward  of  the  scapula — pecto- 
ralis minor  and  rhomboids.  While  these  contract  "eccentrically" 
to  control  the  speed  of  the  movement,  the  abdominal  muscles  and 
hip  joint  flexors  contract  "concentrically"  until  the  flexion  at  the 
hips  and  in  the  lower  back  is  complete,  thereby  insuring  the  prox- 
imity of  the  legs  to  the  bar  throughout  the  descent  and  overturn- 
ing of  the  trunk.  Finally,  when  the  arms  are  straight  and  in  line 
with  the  now  vertical  trunk,  the  legs  are  lowered  by  allowing  the 
abdominal  muscles  and  hip  joint  flexors  to  yield  to  gravity.  This 
continues  until  the  hip  joints  are  in  complete  extension  and  the 
back  is  straight,  when  the  body  is  in  the  ordinary  hanging 
position. 

Variations  in  the  manner  of  performing  the  forward  circle  are 
numerous.  The  principal  modification  of  the  type  described  is 
the  one  in  which  the  hips  are  straightened  first,  the  elbows  last. 
This  often  occurs  involuntarily,  because  of  lack  of  strength  and 
coordination  on  the  part  of  the  performer,  but  is  also  used  by 
skillful  gymnasts  when  other  movements  are  to  follow  which 
require  considerable  swing  or  momentum.  The  mechanism  of 
this  type  of  forward  circle  is  practically  the  same  as  that  de- 
scribed, except  that  the  order  of  the  different  parts  is  changed. 
Also,  less  effort  is  called  for  on  the  part  of  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles, and  more  on  the  part  of  the  hip  and  back  extensors,  as  well 
as  on  the  shoulder  joint  extensors,  the  elbow  and  finger  flexors 
and  the  rotators  downward  of  the  scapula  in  order  to  manage 
the  much  greater  momentum. 

28.  The  inverted  hanging  position,  and  pull-up  over  bar  to 
Back  Rest.  In  the  inverted  hanging  position  the  body  is  sus- 
pended vertically  on  the  arms,  head  down.  The  mechanism  of  the 
exercise  varies  somewhat  with  the  apparatus  used,  and  also  ac- 
cording to  minor  details  of  definition.  Thus,  when  done  between 
the  parallel  bars,  ropes  or  rings  the  balance  element  is  most  pro- 
nounced and  involves  equal,  or  at  any  rate  quickly  alternating, 
action  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  shoulder,  trunk  and  hip  joint 
muscles.  When  the  horizontal  bar  or  similar  apparatus  is  used, 
the  front  of  the  thighs  may  be  in  contact  with  the  bar,  the 
position  therefore  demanding  a  more  or  less  general  muscular 


64 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


action,  but  on  the  whole  involving  the  anterior  muscles  slightly 
more  than  the  posterior.  This  position  is  usually  of  a  transitory 
character,  occurring  as  a  part  of  another  exercise,  e.g.,  circling  the 
bar.  Its  main  features  have  already  been  indicated.  Or,  the  feet 
may  be  passed  through  between  the  hands,  the  legs  then  straight- 
ened, and  the  back  slightly  arched.  The  balance  is  then  made 
easier  through  the  support  afforded  by  contact  of  the  back  of  the 
thighs  with  the  bar.  The  last-mentioned  type  will  be  assumed. 

In  taking  the  position  the 
same  muscular  and  joint 
action  occurs  as  was  de- 
scribed under  "circling  the 
bar,"  parts  1  and  2.  Just 
before  the  legs  reach  the  ver- 
tical the  knees  and  hips  are 
flexed  sharply,  to  allow  the 
feet  to  pass  under  the  bar, 
between  the  hands.  This 
flexion  is  produced  by  grav- 
ity, unless  begun  some  time 
before  the  legs  reach  the  ver- 
tical, when  the  hip  joint 
flexors  and  abdominal  mus- 
cles would  be  called  into 
action.  With  this  flexion  is 
associated,  as  usual,  marked 
curving  of  the  whole  back, 
the  whole  movement  being 
fairly  described  by  the  term 
"curling  up." 

Next,  the  hip,  knee  and 
back  extensors  contract,  pro- 
ducing complete  straighten- 
ing at  the  hips  and  knees,  and 
a  moderate  arching  of  the 

back.  This,  if  carefully  done,  brings  the  back  of  the  thigh  in 
contact  with  the  bar.  When  the  action  of  the  back  extensors  is 
excessive,  too  great  arching  of  the  lower  back  is  produced. 

This,  alone  or  combined  with  premature  straightening  of  the 
knees,  is  liable  to  displace  too  much  weight  in  the  direction 
toward  which  the  face  is  turned,  and  lead  to  an  involuntary 
backward  circle  to  the  floor.  To  guard  against  this,  or  at  any 
rate  to  minimize  the  arching  of  the  lower  back,  the  abdominal 
muscles  have  to  maintain  a  moderate  static  contraction. 

As  regards  the  shoulder  region,  gravity  is  keeping  the  shoulder 
joint  adducted  or  extended,  and  even  slightly  hyperextended. 


INVERTED  HANGING  POSITION 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  65 

The  last  is  also  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  the  static  contraction  of 
the  latissimus  and  teres  major,  associated  with  the  back  extensors 
(and  gravity)  in  maintaining  the  arched  position.  The  scapula 
is  also  kept  rotated  downward,  adducted  and  depressed  by  gravity. 

The  position  being  decidedly  "active,"  however,  the  weight  is 
borne  by  the  flexors  and  abductors  of  the  shoulder  joint — upper 
pectoralis  major,  deltoid  and  supraspinatus ;  the  rotators  upward 
of  the  scapula — middle  trapezius  and  serratus ;  and  the  elevators 
of  the  scapula — upper  trapezius,  levator  anguli  scapulae  and  the 
rhomboids.  All  these  are  in  a  state  of  moderate  tonic  contrac- 
tion, while  the  lower  trapezius,  lower  pectoralis  major  and  the 
pectoralis  minor  are  less  active.  The  two  latter  are,  however, 
subjected  to  strong  tension. 

When  it  is  desired  to  pull  the  body  up  over  the  bar  to  the  sitting 
position  (or  to  the  more  active  position  of  Back  Rest),  the  above- 
named  muscles  contract  more  powerfully.  They  are  joined  by  the 
biceps  and  brachialis  anticus,  while  the  latissimus  and  teres  major 
relax  more  or  less.  This  effort  continues  until  the  body  has  been 
raised  sufficiently  to  bring  the  sacrum  opposite  the  bar,  when  the 
weight  of  the  legs  overbalances  that  of  the  trunk  (providing 
the  extension  in  the  hip  joint  and  the  arching  of  the  back  have 
been  maintained) .  When  this  point  has  been  passed,  further  con- 
traction of  these  muscles  must  cease  and  muscular  action  of 
the  opposite  character  begin,  viz.,  contraction  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  and  hip  joint  flexors;  of  the  latissimus,  teres  major 
and  triceps;  and  of  the  lower  pectoralis  major.  The  lower 
and  middle  trapezius,  as  well  as  the  rhomboids,  also  contract,  the 
latter  with  the  double  purpose  of  assisting  the  trapezius  in  keep- 
ing the  scapula  adducted  and  aiding  the  pectoralis  minor  in  rotat- 
ing it  downward.  As  a  result  of  these  muscular  efforts,  the  trunk, 
after  passing  the  horizontal,  is  raised  to  the  vertical  position, 
or  to  a  position  with  a  backward  inclination  of  about  45°,  sup- 
ported on  the  straight  arms  and  the  back  of  the  thighs. 

If  the  contractions  of  the  muscles  active  during  the  "pull-up" 
do  not  cease  at  the  right  moment,  the  overbalance  of  the  legs 
becomes  too  great,  and  the  body  is  precipitated  forward  over  the 
bar.  If  the  final  muscular  efforts  begin  too  soon,  the  body  is 
liable  to  be  pushed  back,  beyond  the  point  of  balance,  and  an 
involuntary  backward  circle  to  the  floor  is  the  result. 

At  all  times  during  the  last  two  stages  of  the  movement,  par- 
ticular attention  must  be  given  to  the  position  of  the  head.  The 
tendency  to  bend  it  forward  is  very  strong  on  account  of  the 
greater  ease  in  balancing  and  guiding  the  movement  when  the 
performer  is  able  to  look  up.  Keeping  the  head  forward  also 
reduces  the  weight  leverage  of  the  trunk  appreciably  at  the  criti- 
cal moment.  After  the  point  of  balance  has  been  passed,  the 


66  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

forward  position  of  the  head  is  largely  due  to  the  close  associa- 
tion of  the  anterior  neck  muscles  with  the  pectoral  and  abdominal 
muscles  which  is  particularly  marked  whenever  the  trunk  is  lean- 
ing back  unsupported.  For  all  these  reasons  it  does  not  "come 
natural"  to  keep  the  head  back.  In  fact,  the  necessary  conscious 
effort  to  do  so  increases  the  difficulty  of  the  exercise  considerably. 

29.  Upstart  to  Front  Rest  (the  "Kip").  This  is  one  of  the 
conventional  modes  of  mounting  the  high  bar.  It  is  an  exercise 
of  no  small  difficulty,  in  spite  of  its  apparent  simplicity  (when 
w.ell  done).  This,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  capable  of  being  per- 
formed with  a  certain  grace  or  style,  make  it  a  very  popular 
exercise  with  young  men,  at  once  the  never  ending  attraction  and 
the  despair  of  the  uninitiated.  Briefly  considered,  it  may  be 
said  to  consist  of  the  following  parts: 

1.  Starting  the  swing,  as  previously  described.  2.  On  the 
next  forward  swing,  the  chest  is  forcibly  expanded  and  the  back 
arched  as  the  body  passes  the  vertical.  This  position  is  held, 
with  absolute  rigidity,  until  the  forward  swing  is  almost  com- 
pleted. The  mechanism  of  this  is  practically  identical  with  that 
of  the  "active"  hanging  position,  already  described.  3.  A  very 
small  fraction  of  time  before  the  forward  swing  is  completed,  the 
legs  are  quickly  raised  by  a  flexion  in  the  hip  joints.  The  less 
the .  spine  is  flexed,  the  better.  4.  The  legs  are  immediately 
brought  down  and  back  by  a  forcible  extension  in  the  hip  joints 
and  spine,  while  the  arms,  kept  straight  and  rigid,  are  simulta- 
neously pressed  down  to  the  sides,  in  other  words,  extension  in 
the  shoulder  joint,  rotation  downward,  depression  and  adduction 
of  the  scapula  take  place.  The  muscles  concerned  are  the  hip 
extensors  and  erector  spinae;  the  latissimus  and  teres  major;  the 
pectoralis  major;  the  pectoralis  minor  and  rhomboids;  the  lower 
trapezius ;  the  triceps.  It  is  on  the  proper  timing,  quickness  and 
vigor  of  this  complex  muscular  effort  in  relation  to  the  recoil  from 
the  forward  swing  that  the  success  of  the  exercise  depends.  If  it 
is  made  a  moment  too  soon  or  too  late,  if  the  extension  at  the  hip 
is  not  complete,  if  the  arching  of  the  back  is  excessive,  if  the 
extension  of  the  shoulder  joint  (the  bearing  down  with  the  arms) 
is  not  strong  enough,  or  if  the  elbows  are  allowed  to  bend  before 
the  body  is  vertical  and  its  center  of  gravity  above  the  level  of 
the  bar,  the  exercise  becomes  a  futile,  spasmodic,  nondescript 
effort,  the  performer  either  striking  the  under  side  of  the  bar 
with  his  chest  or  abdomen  or  else  swinging  hopelessly  backward 
and  downward,  instead  of  rising  smoothly  to  the  Front  Rest 
position. 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


67 


C.      EXERCISES  INVOLVING  SUPPORT  ON  THE  ARMS. 

30.  Front  Rest  (Balance  Weighing  Position).  This  has 
already  been  mentioned  and  its  mechanism  indicated  in  connec- 
tion with  "Circling  the  bar"  and  "Upstart  to  Front  Rest."  It 
may  also  be  reached  by  a  direct  mount  on  any  apparatus  low 
enough  to  allow  it;  e.g.,  the  low  horizontal  bar  or  boom,  the 
horse  or  the  buck.  Its  definition  may  be  briefly  stated  thus :  body 
slightly  arched,  facing  at  right  angle  to  the  apparatus,  inclined 
forward  about  45  degrees,  weight  supported  on  the  hands  and 
upper  part  of  the  thighs.  It 
is  used  as  a  starting  position 
for  many  exercises  on  the 
horizontal  bar  and  horse,  and 
in  modified  forms,  without 
support  on  the  thighs  (varia- 
tions of  the  so-called  "Free" 
Front  Rest),  constitutes  the 
principal  transitory  position 
of  some  vaults  and  dismounts 
on  the  horse,  buck,  low  hori- 
zontal and  parallel  bars. 

Although  the  body  is  in  a 
position  similar  to  the  funda- 
mental standing  position,  and 
the  muscles  responsible  for 
the  maintenance  of  the  latter 
are  here  even  more  active, 
the  relation  of  the  muscular 
action  to  gravity  is  different. 
In  the  fundamental  standing 
position  gravity  keeps  the 
elbow  and  shoulder  joints  in  extension  and  the  scapula  rotated 
downward.  In  "Front  Rest,"  with  a  part  of  the  weight  supported 
on  the  arms,  gravity  tends  to  cause  flexion  in  the  elbow,  abduc- 
tion in  the  shoulder  joint  and  rotation  upward,  with  abduction 
and  elevation  of  the  scapula.  Gravity  also  helps  to  produce 
flexion  at  the  hip  and  rounding  of  the  back.  The  last  two  fea- 
tures are  apt  to  be  pronounced  when  sudden  and  excessive  efforts 
are  made  to  regain  the  equilibrium,  which  at  best  is  none  too 
stable. 

The  active  muscles  are  those  which  resist  gravity,  viz.,  the 
triceps ;  the  adductors  of  the  shoulder  joint — latissimus  and  teres 
major,  pectoralis  major  (lower  portion)  ;  the  rotators  down- 
ward of  scapula — pectoralis  minor  and  rhomboids ;  the  adductors 


FIGURE  23.    FRONT  REST 


68  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

and  depressors  of  the  scapula — trapezius  (rhomboids,  latissimus, 
pectoralis  minor,  already  enumerated  in  other  capacities)  ;  the 
extensors  of  the  hip  joint  and  back. 

While  the  total  amount  of  work  performed  by  these  muscles  is 
considerable,  the  feature  of  particular  interest  in  "Front  Rest"  is 
the  difficulty  it  offers  in  maintaining  good  posture  of  the  upper 
part  of  the  body.  This  difficulty  is  related  in  the  first  place  to  the 
unstable  equilibrium,  in  the  second  place  to  the  large  share  of 
the  work  devolving  on  the  pectorals  in  supporting  the  weight. 

As  regards  the  balance,  it  will  readily  be  seen  that  the  higher 
the  body  is  raised  above  the  bar  and  the  greater  its  inclination, 
the  more  insecure  is  the  position.  For  this  reason  the  unskilled 
performer  is  reluctant  to  push  up  high  enough  to  straighten  the 
arms  and  to  bring  the  upper  part  of  the  thighs  into  contact  with 
the  bar.  Or,  if  he  does  so,  he  is  apt  to  bend  at  the  hips  and  at  the 
same  time  to  curve  the  back.  This  gives  him  a  greater  sense  of 
security,  because  there  is  then  less  projection  of  weight  on  each 
side  of  the  bar,  with  correspondingly  lessened  danger  of  acquir- 
ing too  great  momentum  forward  in  attempts  to  find  the  point  of 
balance. 

Closely  associated  with  this  reluctance  or  inability  to  straighten 
the  back  for  fear  of  becoming  overbalanced  is  the  excessive 
action  of  the  pectorals  and  abdominal  muscles.  Indeed,  it  is  the 
powerful  action  of  the  former  which  is  chiefly  responsible  for  the 
rounding  of  the  upper  back  and  the  marked  mal-position  of  the 
scapula,  so  common  in  this  exercise;  while  the  latter,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  hip  joint  flexors  (and  gravity),  cause  the  curving  of 
the  lower  back  and  the  bend  at  the  hips.  Attention  has  several 
times  been  called  to  the  close  functional  association  of  all  the 
anterior  muscle  groups,  from  the  anterior  neck  muscles  to  the 
hip  joint  flexors.  Whenever  one  set  is  very  active  one  or  all  of 
the  others  are  apt  to  be  brought  into  play.  This  is  especially 
true  when  the  body  is  suspended  or  supported  on  the  arms,  the 
legs  then  being  free  to  be  moved  in  a  way  to  balance  displace- 
ments of  weight  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  Illustrations  of 
this  occurred  in  the  analysis  of  such  exercises  as  "Arm  bending 
from  the  hanging  position,"  "Circling  the  bar,"  "Inverted  hang- 
ing position."  In  "Front  Rest"  the  tendency  of  the  untrained 
individual  is  to  try  to  escape  the  difficulties  of  balance  involved 
in  resting  heavily  on  the  thighs  by  supporting  the  greater  part 
of  the  weight  on  the  arms.  This  throws  the  largest  share  of  the 
work  on  the  pectorals.  Their  powerful  contraction,  aided  by  the 
associated  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  leads  to  a  forward 
movement  of  the  point  of  the  shoulder  and  a  rounding  of  the 
upper  back.  This  is  equivalent  to  a  slight  flexion  in  the  shoulder 
joint  and  a  marked  displacement  of  the  scapula  by  which  this 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  69 

bone  is  not  only  abducted  (moved  away  from  the  spine),  but 
also  tilted  so  that  its  lower  angle  projects  sharply.  The  peculiar 
scapular  displacement  is  due,  primarily,  to  the  excessive,  unbal- 
anced action  of  'the  pectoralis  minor  in  its  effort  to  prevent 
gravity  from  elevating  and  rotating  the  bone  upward.  While 
the  projection  forward  of  the  point  of  the  shoulder  is  due,  largely, 
to  this  displacement  of  the  shoulder  girdle,  it  is  made  more  pro- 
nounced by  a  simultaneous  depression  of  the  chest.  The  latter 
is  bound  to  occur  whenever  the  two  large  pectorals,  acting  as 
one  muscle  running  over  the  convex  surface  of  the  upper  chest, 
contract  completely.  They  will  then  tend  to  get  into  a  straight 
line.  If  the  displacement  of  the  shoulder  girdle  is  not  sufficient 
to  allow  this — as  in  the  present  case,  the  arms  being  fixed — the 
trunk  will  be  forced  backward.  This  can  only  mean  curving  of 
the  thoracic,  spine  and  that,  in  turn,  is  always  associated  with 
depression  and  inversion  of  the  ribs. 

The  prevention  of  this  displacement  of  the  shoulder  girdle  and 
the  preservation  of  erect  posture  of  the  upper  trunk  devolve 
here,  as  always,  on  the  scapular  adductors  and  posterior  depres- 
sors, aided  by  the  longitudinal  back  muscles  and  hip  joint  exten- 
sors. Owing  to  the  unusual  difficulties  encountered,  as  repre- 
sented by  the  instability  of  the  position,  and  the  amount  of 
weight  to  be  supported  on  the  arms  with  the  consequent  power- 
ful action  of  the  pectorals  working  with  good  leverage,  the 
successful  performance  of  this  exercise  demands,  in  the  first 
place,  fairly  strong,  well-developed  upper  back  muscles.  This 
is  not  infrequently  lacking  in  those  who  attempt  it.  Secondly, 
the  performer  must  have  good  control  of  the  scapular  muscles, 
as  well  as  a  fairly  well-trained  muscular  sense  generally,  so  that 
he  is  not  inhibited  too  much  by  the  difficulties  of  maintaining  his 
equilibrium. 

The  practical  application  of  all  this  to  gymnastic  teaching  is 
to  refrain  from  giving  such  an  exercise  to  individuals  who  for 
one  reason  or  another — youth,  sex,  untrained  condition — have  not 
the  requisite  strength  and  control  to  do  it  acceptably  after  a 
few  attempts.  Such  individuals  should  receive  preparatory  train- 
ing by  practice  of  the  various  shoulder  blade  movements  and  sim- 
ple suspension  exercises  already  described,  supplemented  by  such 
exercises  as  the  "Prone  falling  position"  and  "Free  Front  Rest" 
(to  be  described). 

When  properly  taken,  however,  the  "Front  Rest"  position,  by 
putting  the  muscles  responsible  for  erect  carriage  of  the  upper 
trunk — the  scapular  depressors  and  adductors,  the  upper  back  and 
posterior  neck  muscles — to  a  most  severe  test,  gives  those  mus- 
cles excellent  training  both  as  regards  strength  and  control.  It 
also  cultivates  in  a  high  degree  general  muscular  sense  and 


70  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

coordination,  the  efforts  to  maintain  the  equilibrium  involving 
more  or  fess  all  the  principal  muscles  in  the  body. 

31.  "Free"  Front  Rest  is  an  exercise  which  may  be  used  as  a 
preparation  for  certain  vaults  and  for  "Front  Rest,"  being  some- 
what similar  to  the  latter  in  its  mechanism.  The  term  is  really 
a  misnomer,  as  the  exercise  is  a  movement  rather  than  a  position. 
For  although  the  effort  should  be  to  hold  it  as  long  as  possible, 
few  are  able  to  do  so  for  more  than  a  second,  while  the  majority 
descend  abruptly  before  having  ascended  even  half  way  to  the 
desired  level.  It  may  be  described  as  a  swinging  up  of  the  body 
toward  the  horizontal  position,  weight  supported  entirely  on  the 
arms.  It  is  done  on  the  horse,  buck,  low  horizontal  bar  or  boom, 
usually  started  by  springing  from  the  floor;  or  on  the  parallel 
bars  preceded  by  a  forward  swing.  In  either  case  sufficient 
momentum  is  one  of  the  necessary  prerequisites  for  successful 
performance.  Sufficient  forward  displacement  of  tne  weight  is 
another.  Strength  is  not  as  essential  as  might  be  supposed,  pn> 
vided  full  advantage  is  taken  of  the  other  two  factors. 

The  body  rises  toward  the  horizontal  position  by  a  partial 
flexion  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  a  partial  rotation  upward  with 
some  abduction  of  the  scapula.  The  flexion  in  the  shoulder  joint 
is  minimized  by  a  compensatory  hyperextension  at  the  wrist 
involved  in  the  projection  of  the  head  and  upper  trunk  forward 
over  the  apparatus.  By  this  means  the  arms  are  inclined  for- 
ward so  as  to  form  a  more  acute  angle  with  the  trunk  than  would 
otherwise  be  the  case,  and  the  weight  of  the  body  as  a  whole  is 
more  evenly  distributed  in  front  and  behind  the  support  (the 
hands).  The  head  and  upper  trunk  thus  act  as  a  counterweight 
to  the  legs,  and  this,  together  with  the  momentum  from  the 
spring,  makes  possible  the  elevation  of  the  body  by  the  com- 
paratively small  motor  muscles,  working  under  adverse  mechani- 
cal conditions.  The  muscles  in  question  are  the  flexors  of  the 
shoulder  joint — upper  pectoralis  major,  anterior  deltoid,  biceps 
and  coraco-brachialis ;  the  rotators  upward  of  the  scapula — 
trapezius  and  serratus  magnus  (see  below)  ;  and  the  extensors  of 
the  spine  and  hip. 

The  muscular  mechanism  is,  however,  not  as  simple  as  might  be 
supposed  from  the  above  enumeration  of  the  motor  muscles.  In 
the  first  place  the  triceps  has  to  maintain  a  powerful  contraction 
throughout  to  keep  the  elbow  from  bending  too  much  under  the 
weight.  Similarly  the  lower  pectoralis  major,  as  well  as  the  long 
head  of  triceps,  must  be  kept  strongly  active  to  prevent  gravity 
from  producing  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint.  This  is  espe- 
cially true  during  the  first  part  of  the  movement  when  the  body 
is  nearer  the  vertical  than  the  horizontal  position.  Secondly, 
during  the  early  stage  of  the  movement  the  action  of  the  trapezius 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  71 

and  serratus  should  be  confined  to  the  lower  portions  of  these 
muscles  in  the  effort  to  resist  the  tendency  of  gravity  to 
produce  scapular  elevation.  When  the  horizontal  plane  is  ap- 
proached, however,  these  muscles  are  brought  into  full  action, 
not  so  much  to  produce  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula,  although 
that  inevitably  occurs  more  than  is  desirable,  but  to  aid  in  the 
proper  fixation  of  the  shoulder  girdle. 

At  this  point  the  whole  body  weight  may  be  said  to  be  sus- 
pended on  the  pectorals,  major  and  minor,  and  the  serratus  on 
each  side.  These  contract  with  utmost  vigor  to  prevent  the 
trunk  from  sinking  down  between  the  arms.  This  would  lead  to 
adduction  and  rotation  downward  of  the  scapula  and  to  a  bodily 
backward  displacement  of  this  bone.  In  their  violent  efforts  to 
prevent  this,  the  pectorals  and  serratus  are  apt  to  bring  about  the 
opposite  condition,  namely,  extreme  scapular  abduction.  That 
necessitates  contraction  of  the  scapular  adductors,  chiefly  the 
trapezius  and  rhomboids,  although  the  latissimus  and  levator 
anguli  scapulae  are  probably  also  active.  Only  in  this  way  is  the 
proper  fixation  of  the  shoulder  girdle  insured.  The  net  results, 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions,  of  this  interplay  of  the 
scapular  muscles — abductors  against  adductors,  elevators  against 
depressors,  rotators  upward  against  rotators  downward — plus 
the  action  of  gravity,  is  a  moderate  rotation  upward  with  some 
abduction  and  elevation  of  the  scapula,  while  the  upper  back  is 
kept  straight  and  -the  chest  moderately  expanded  by  the  upper 
prolongations  of  the  erector  spinae  and  the  deep  back  muscles. 

When  the  exercise  is  first  attempted  there  is  usually  only  a 
very  slight  rise  and  even  less  incline  of  the  body.  The  mechanism 
is  then  much  like  that  of  "Front  rest,"  but  the  muscular  work  is 
easier  because  of  the  momentary  character  of  the  effort  and  the 
reduction  in  resistance  represented  by  the  momentum  from  the 
spring. 

32.  Face  vault  (Front  vault}.  This  is  one  of  the  horizontal 
vaults,  in  which  the  front  of  the  body  is  toward  the  apparatus  at 
the  moment  of  passing  it.  It  is  a  modification  of  "Free  Front 
Rest"  involving  a  90-degree  turn  of  the  body  at  the  moment  of 
the  spring,  and  a  lateral  movement  of  the  legs  and  lower  trunk, 
during  the  ascent  as  well  as  the  descent,  by  means  of  which  the 
landing  is  made  on  the  other  side  of  the  apparatus.  The  mechan- 
ism is  practically  the  same  as  that  of  "Free  Front  Rest,"  the  prin- 
cipal differences  being  the  slight  excess  of  action  of  the  back 
muscles  on  the  side  toward  which  the  vault  is  made  (e.g.,  the 
left),  a  transfer  of  the  weight  to  the  arm  of  the  opposite  side 
(right)  and  abduction  combined  with  extension  in  the  shoulder 
joint  of  that  side  during  the  last  part  of  the  movement.  The 
difficulty  here,  as  in  "Free  Front  Rest,"  is  to  get  enough  momen- 


72  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

turn  in  the  take-off,  and  to  have  enough  weight  in  front  of  the 
hands  during  the  progress  of  the  movement  to  counterbalance  the 
weight  of  the  legs  and  lower  trunk,  thereby  reducing  the  work 
of  the  motor  muscles.  Partial  failure  in  these  respects  shows 
itself  by  too  large  an  angle  between  the  arms  and  the  body,  and 
in  landing  a  varying  distance  behind  the  hand  which  remains  on 
the  apparatus.  Another  fault,  peculiar  to  this  exercise,  is  the 
tardy  transfer  of  the  weight  to  the  arm  on  the  side  opposite  that 
toward  which  the  vault  is  made  (right  arm  if  the  vault  is  to  left), 
accompanied  by  too  long  retention  of  the  hold  of  the  other  hand 
(left  in  this  case)  on  the  apparatus.  This  leads  to  an  excessive 
turn  of  the  body  in  the  same  direction  as  the  initial  turn  (right 
in  this  case)  and  a  poor  landing. 

The  placing  of  the  hands  is  of  some  importance.  If  the 
vault  is  made  on  the  horse  or  buck,  to  the  left,  one  hand  on 
each  side  of  the  right  end  of  the  apparatus  gives  the  best  sup- 
port; if  the  low  horizontal  bar  is  used  the  combined  grasp  is  the 
most  satisfactory.  Finally,  the  tendency  here,  as  in  crude 
attempts  at  "Free  Front  Rest,"  is  to  flex  the  knees,  hips  and 
back — curling  up ;  this  being  the  readiest  and  therefore  the 
instinctive  way  of  reducing  the  weight  leverage. 

33.  Side  vault  (Flank  vault)  is  another  of  the  horizontal 
vaults.  Here  the  side  of  the  body  is  toward  the  apparatus  at 
the  moment  of  passing.  If  the  vault  is  to  the  left,  the  weight  is 
transferred  to  the  right  arm  immediately  after  the  take-off,  the 
left  arm  being  used  only  momentarily  to  deflect  to  the  right  a 
part  of  the  forward  momentum  of  the  upper  trunk  gained  in 
the  spring  from  the  floor.  The  success  of  tJie  vault  depends,  as 
in  the  "Face  vault,"  on  sufficient  momentum  and  proper  distribu- 
tion of  the  weight  rather  than  on  great  strength.  The  main 
features  of  the  mechanism  are  as  follows:  The  legs  are  raised 
to  the  left  by  a  slight  bend  at  the  waist  and  by  abduction  in  the 
right  shoulder  joint  with  rotation  upward,  abduction  and  slight 
elevation  of  the  right  scapula.  The  displacement  of  the  body  to 
the  right  in  the  effort  to  distribute  the  weight  more  evenly  over 
the  right  hand  usually  causes  a  slight  bending  of  the  right  elbow, 
followed  either  immediately  or  in  the  last  part  of  the  vault  by 
straightening  of  this  joint.  The  resulting  inclination  of  the  arm 
to  the  right  reduces  somewhat  the  extent  of  the  above-mentioned 
shoulder  joint  and  scapular  movements.  The  principal  muscles 
active  so  far  are  the  abdominal  and  lower  back  muscles  of  the 
left  side ;  the  left  and  right  pectoralis  major  and  minor,  rhomboids 
and  triceps  for  a  moment  only ;  then  the  right  deltoid  and  supras- 
pinatus,  trapezius  and  serratus.  The  right  triceps  yields  a  little 
as  the  legs  are  ascending  and  the  weight  is  being  shifted  to  the 
right  arm. 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  73 

When  the  legs  have  reached  the  highest  point  and  the  body 
as  a  whole  is  in  an  approximately  horizontal  position  directly 
over  the  apparatus,  the  bend  to  the  left  in  the  waist  and  the  slight 
flexion  of  the  hip  joints  that  may  have  occurred  during,  the 
ascent  are  suddenly  eliminated  and  the  whole  back  extended  by 
the  vigorous  contraction  of  the  longitudinal  back  muscles  and  the 
hip  joint  extensors.  The  deltoid  and  supraspinatus,  trapezius  and 
serratus  on  the  right  side,  active  during  the  ascent,  are  at  this 
moment  making  their  most  vigorous  effort,  the  initial  momentum 
being  almost  spent  and  what  remains  being  utilized  to  carry  the 
body  past  the  apparatus. 

The  descent  of  the  legs  and  the  return  of  the  body  to  the  ver- 
tical are  accomplished  partly  by  gravity,  partly  by  a  quick,  vig- 
orous contraction  of  the  right  triceps,  latissimus,  teres  major, 
pectorals,  rhomboids  and  lower  trapezius,  resulting  in  a  straight- 
ening of  the  elbow,  previously  slightly  bent,  adduction  with  hyper- 
extension  of  the  arm  and  rotation  downward  with  depression  of 
the  scapula.  The  whole  muscular  effort  is  in  the  nature  of  a 
spring  from  the  right  arm,  giving  an  upward  momentum  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  and  also  displacing  it  to  the  left  suffi- 
ciently to  bring  the  center  of  gravity  over  the  feet  at  the  moment 
of  landing. 

34.  Back  vault  (Rear  vault).  This  is  the  last  of  the  three 
horizontal  vaults.  The  back  is  toward  the  apparatus  at-  the 
moment  of  passing  it.  The  approach,  placing  of  the  hands  and 
spring  from  the  floor  are  exactly  like  those  of  the  "Side  vault." 
But  as  the  legs  are  raised,  say  to  the  left,  the  trunk  remains  more 
nearly  vertical,  there  is  a  more  marked  bend  to  the  left  at  the 
waist,  followed  very  soon  by  a  90-degree  turn  of  the  whole  body 
to  the  left,  a  straightening  at  the  waist  and  a  sharp  bend  at  the 
hips.  As  in  the  "Side  vault"  the  weight  is  put  on  the  right  arm 
soon  after  the  feet  have  left  the  floor,  then,  just  as  the  legs  are 
passing  the  apparatus,  the  left  hand  is  brought  behind  the  back 
and  replaces  the  right  hand  in  supporting  the  weight  during  the 
descent. 

The  anatomical  mechanism  of  the  various  phases  of  the  vault 
includes:  (1)  Contraction  of  the  abdominal  and  lower  back  mus- 
cles of  the  left  side,  aided  by  the  abductors  of  the  left  and  adduc- 
tors of  the  right  hip  joint.  (2)  The  turn  of  the  body  begins  as 
a  twisting  of  the  hips  to  left,  produced  by  the  oblique  abdominal 
and  back  muscles.  The  impulse  for  the  turn  of  the  shoulders  is 
given  by  the  left  hand  as  it  releases  its  hold  on  the  apparatus 
soon  after  the  feet  have  left  the  floor.  It  involves  rotation  out- 
ward in  the  right  shoulder  joint  (see  below).  (3)  Flexion  at 
the  hips  and  in  the  lower  back,  by  the  hip  joint  flexors  and 
abdominal  muscles.  (4)  Rotation  outward  and  hyperextension 


74  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

in  the  right  shoulder  joint,  and  resistance  to  gravity,  tending  to 
produce  abduction  in  this  joint,  elevation  and  rotation  upward  of 
the  scapula  and  flexion  in  the  right  elbow.  This  requires  con- 
traction of  the  latissimus  and  teres  major:  lower  pectoralis  major, 
posterior  deltoid,  inf  raspinatus  and  teres  minor ;  pectoralis  minor 
and  rhomboids;  lower  trapezius  and  the  triceps,  all  on  the  right 
side.  The  turn  of  the  shoulders  also  necessitates  contraction  of 
the  oblique  abdominal  and  back  muscles  of  a  character  reverse 
to  that  occurring  when  the  hips  are  turned  at  the  beginning  of  the 
ascent. 

During  the  descent  the  hips  and  lower  back  are  straightened, 
chiefly  by  gravity,  but,  as  the  movement  is  quick,  the  hip  and 
back  extensors  also  assist  by  a  momentary  contraction.  The 
weight  having  been  transferred  to  the  left  arm,  gravity  and  what 
is  left  of  the  initial  momentum  now  produce  abduction  combined 
with  flexion  and  slight  rotation  inward  in  the  left  shoulder 
joint,  rotation  upward  with  tendency  to  elevation  and  abduction 
of  the  left  scapula.  The  left  elbow  also  is  apt  to  bend.  The 
active  muscles  are  those  which  resist  these  movements  or  ten- 
dencies, viz.,  the  left  latissimus  and  teres  major,  lower  pectoralis 
major;  pectoralis  minor  and  rhomboids;  lower  and  middle 
trapezius ;  and  triceps. 

35.  The  Hand  stand  is  reached  by  a  movement  the  first  part 
of  which  is  like  "Free  Front  Rest"  as  far  as  the  shoulder  region 
is  concerned.  But  in  raising  the  legs  and  inverting  the  body 
to  the  "Hand  stand"  there  is  at  first  a  considerable  bend  at 
the  hips  and  more  flexion  in  the  elbows  than  occurs  in  "Free 
Front  Rest." 

When  the  trunk  has  passed  the  horizontal  its  further  eleva- 
tion and  final  inversion  involve  continued  flexion  and  then  exten- 
sion with  rotation  outward  and  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint 
and  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula,  until  the  limits  of  these  move- 
ments are  approached.  This  is  equivalent  to  a  forward-upward 
arm  raising  and  is  accomplished  by  the  contraction  of  the  deltoid 
and  supraspinatus,  trapezius  and  serratus,  infraspinatus  and 
teres  minor,  aided,  of  course,  by  the  momentum  developed  in 
the  spring  from  the  floor.  The  rhomboids  and  levator  anguli 
scapulae  also  become  active,  aiding  the  upper  trapezius  in  resist- 
ing the  tendency  of  gravity  to  depress  the  scapula  as  the  verti- 
cal, inverted  position  of  the  trunk  is  approached.  Just  before 
this  is  reached  the  hips,  lower  back  and  elbows  are  straightened 
by  the  forcible  contraction  of  their  respective  extensor  muscles. 

The  final  position  is  usually  rather  arched,  demanding  static 
contraction  of  the  abdominal  and  pectoral  muscles,  while  the 
shoulder  joint  and  scapula  are  kept  in  their  respective  positions 
by  continued  complete  contraction  of  the  muscles  which  brought 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  75 

them  there  (see  above).  The  balance  is  maintained  by  constant 
small  adjustments  involving  interplay  between  the  anterior  and 
posterior  muscles,  supplemented  by  alternate  quick  yieldings  and 
recoveries  on  the  part  of  the  triceps. 

The  exercise  calls  for  and  develops  a  high  degree  of  coordi- 
nation, a  keen  sense  of  equilibrium  and  considerable  strength. 
If  the  tendency  to  excessive  arching  in  the  lower  back  is  resisted, 
its  influence  on  posture  is  on  the  whole  favorable. 

36.  The  vertical  vaults.  This  group  comprises  the  "Squat" 
and  "Straddle"  vaults  and  their  combination,  the  "half  Squat 
half  Straddle"  vault  ("wolf"  vault);  the  "Rear  Squat"  and 
"Rear  Straddle"  vaults;  the  "Knee"  vault  and  "Front"  vault 
("Sheep"  vault);  the  "Cross-legged"  vault;  and  the  "Jump" 
vault  ("Thief"  vault).  As  far  as  the  shoulder  region  is  con- 
cerned, the  mechanism  is  very  nearly  the  same  in  all  of  them, 
with  the  exception  of  the  "Jump"  vault. 

The  Front  vault  may  serve  as  illustration,  being  the  simplest 
in  its  mechanism,  although  by  no  means  easy  of  execution.  It  is 
preceded  by  a  run,  culminating  in  a  short,  quick  jump  and  then 
a  take-off  or  spring  from  both  feet.  The  arms  are  drawn  back 
on  the  jump,  then  quickly  swung  forward.  The  hands  are  placed 
on  the  apparatus  an  instant  after  the  spring  has  been  made. 

At  this  moment  the  shoulder  joint  is  in  a  position  of  partial 
flexion,  the  scapula  somewhat  abducted,  elevated  and  rotated 
upward.  As  the  arms  receive  the  weight  the  elbows  bend  a 
little ;  then  follow  immediately,  and  practically  simultaneously, 
extension  in  the  elbow  and  shoulder  joints,  rotation  downward, 
adduction  and  depression  of  the  scapula,  all  together  constituting 
a  spring  from  the  hands.  It  results  from  the  sudden  contraction 
of  the  triceps,  pectorals,  rhomboids,  latissimus  and  teres  major. 
It  serves  to  increase  the  momentum  gained  by  the  spring  from 
the  feet  and  to  deflect  it  in  a  more  upward  direction.  On 
the  quickness  and  vigor  of  this  muscular  effort  depends  also, 
primarily,  the  erect,  vertical  position  of  the  body  during  the 
progress  of  the  vault.  This  position,  however,  cannot  be  attained 
perfectly,  nor  can  the  apparatus  be  cleared  by  the  feet  success- 
fully, without  a  supplementary  forcible  contraction  of  all  the 
longitudinal  back  muscles  and  the  hip  joint  extensors,  occur- 
ring just  as  the  ascent  is  being  completed.  This  insures  a 
good  fundamental  position  of  the  whole  body  as  the  apparatus  is 
cleared,  chest  leading,  feet  last.  The  only  discrepancies  are  a 
rather  excessive  hyperextension  in  the  lumbar  spine  and  more  or 
less  bend  at  the  knees,  both  faults  being  almost  impossible  to 
eliminate. 

In  the  Jump  vault  the -spring  is  from  one  foot,  just  as  in  the 
ordinary  straight  jump.  The  feet  then  pass  the  apparatus  first, 


76 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


the  body  is  slightly  inclined  backward,  and  the  hands  touch  only 
after  the  descent  has  begun.  The  spring  from  the  hands  in  this 
case  involves  hyperextension  in  the  shoulder  joint,  almost  always 
associated  with  elevation  and  tilting  forward  of  the  scapula  on 
its  median  horizontal  axis.  The  muscular  effort  is  similar  to  that 
occurring  in  the  "Front  vault,"  with  the  action  of  the  pectoralis 
minor,  latissimus  and  teres  major  predominating.  On  account 
of  the  marked  displacement  of  the  scapula  and  the  forward  posi- 
tion of  the  head  so  common  in  this  vault,  it  has  a  rather  unfavor- 
able tendency  as  regards  posture  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body. 


FIGURE  24 
PRONE  FALLING  POSITION  (FRONT  LEANING  REST) 


37.  Prone  falling  position  (Front  Leaning  Rest).  The  body 
weight  is  here  supported  in  part  on  the  hands,  in  part  on  the 
feet  (toes).  When  the  hands  are  on  a  considerably  higher  level 
than  the  feet,  with  the  body  inclined  45°,  the  muscular  mechanism 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  similar  to  that  of  "Front  Rest." 
When  the  hands  and  feet  are  on  the  same  level — as  the  floor  or 
parallel  bars,  with  the  body  nearly  horizontal — the  difference  is 
greater ;  not  so  much  as  regards  the  particular  muscles  employed 
— for  they  are  practically  the  same — but  more  in  regard  to  the 
role  gravity  plays  in  inducing  this  muscular  interplay,  acting,  as 
it  does,  almost  perpendicularly  to  the  whole  length  axis  of  the 
body.  The  balance  element,  so  prominent  and  complicating  a 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  77 

factor  in  "Front  Rest,"  is  wholly  absent  in  the  "Prone  falling 
position." 

It  will  be  assumed- that  the  position  is  taken  on  the  floor,  with 
the  hands  directly  under  the  shoulders — or  a  few  inches  nearer 
the  feet — and  the  fingers  turned  diagonally  toward  each  other. 
The  shoulder  joint  is  then  in  a  state  of  partial  flexion  and  rota- 
tion inward,  gravity  tending  to  produce  abduction  and  extension 
in  this  joint  and  flexion  in  the  elbow.  Gravity  also  tends  to 
adduct  the  scapula  and  to  displace  it  bodily  in  a  direction  away 
from  the  back.  At  the  same  time  the  abdomen  and  hips  tend  to 
"sag"  and  the  knees  to  bend.  This  means  hyperextension  in  the 
lower  back  accompanied  by  increased  flexion  in  the  upper  thoracic 
spine,  diminished  flexion  in  the  shoulder  joint,  elevation  and  rota- 
tion upward  of  the  scapula  added  to  the  displacement  of  this 
bone  already  mentioned.  The  muscles  directly  concerned  in 
resisting  these  tendencies  are  the  triceps ;  the  abdominal  muscles ; 
the  anterior  adductor  and  the  flexors  of  the  shoulder  joint — the 
pectoralis  major,  anterior  deltoid,  coraco-brachialis  and  short 
head  of  biceps ;  the  abductors,  rotators  downward  and  depressors 
of  the  scapula — pectoralis  minor  and  rhomboids,  serratus  magnus 
and  lower  trapezius. 

The  difficulties  and  common  faults  of  the  position,  with  the 
muscular  action  required  in  overcoming  them,  may  be  grouped 
under  two  heads:  (1)  those  due  to  insufficient  muscular  resist- 
ance to  gravity;  (2)  those  associated  with  excessive  muscular 
efforts  to  resist  gravity. 

(1)  In  the  first  category  belongs  what  might  be  called  the 
"relaxed"  position,  in  which  the  weight  is  simply  passively  sus- 
pended on  the  muscles.     Gravity  then  has   free  play  and  the 
extreme  sagging  of  the  lower  trunk  and  hips  with  rounding  of 
the  upper  back  and  mal-position  of  the  scapula  are  the  results. 
The  proper  contraction  with  moderate  shortening  of  the  muscles 
enumerated  above  corrects  this. 

(2)  The  other  type  of  faulty  position  occurs  as  the  result 
of  excessive,  unbalanced  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles 
(usually  with  associated  action  of  the  hip  joint  flexors),  the  pec- 
torals and  the  serratus  magnus.    This  leads  to  a  rounding  of  the 
whole  back,   accompanied  by  flexion   at   the  hips.     Or,  if  the 
abdominal  muscles  are  managed  properly,  so  that  the  lower  back 
and  hips  are  kept  straight,  the  pectorals  and  serratus  may  still 
contract  excessively,  causing  an  extreme   forward  displacement 
of  the  shoulder  girdle,  depression  of  the  chest  and  rounding  of 
upper  back.     To  insure  a  straight,  flat  upper  back  with  proper 
scapular  fixation  the  action  of  the  pectorals  and  serratus  must 
be  balanced  by  contraction  of  the  lower  and  middle  trapezius, 
the  rhomboids  and  the  upper  prolongations  of  the  erector  spinae. 


78  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

In  Arm  bending  from  this  position,  with  the  elbows  moving 
well  sideways,  the  triceps,  pectorals  and  anterior  deltoid  are 
allowed  to  yield  to  gravity,  while  the  scapular  adductors  and  the 
upper  back  muscles  should  remain  strongly  contracted.  In  this 
way  the  movement  may  be  done  without  disturbing  the  position 
of  the  chest,  back  and  shoulder  blades  (compare  arm  bending 
from  "Cross  Rest"). 

38.  Cross  Rest  on  the  parallel  bars.  The  body  is  in  the  fun- 
damental position,  vertical,  supported  entirely  on  the  straight 
arms,  one  hand  on  each  bar.  Gravity  tends  to  flex  the  elbow, 
abduct  and  hyperextend  the  shoulder  joint,  elevate  the  scapula 
and  rotate  it  upward.  The  muscles  maintaining  the  position  are 
therefore  the  triceps;  the  (flexors  and)  adductors  of  the  shoulder 
joint — the  pectoralis  major  (anterior  deltoid),  latissimus  and 
teres  major;  the  depressors  and  rotators  downward  of  the  scapula 
— pectoralis  minor,  rhomboids  and  (lower)  trapezius. 


FIGURE  25 
ARM  BENDING  FROM  PRONE  FALLING  POSITION 

The  proper  posture  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is,  as  usual, 
dependent  on  the  vigorous  contraction  of  the  adductors  and 
depressors  of  the  scapula;  rhomboids,  trapezius  and  latissimus. 
While  the  amount  of  work  demanded  of  these  muscles  is  con- 
siderable, their  action  is  comparatively  simple,  being  more  in 
line  with,  and  therefore  less  opposed  to,  that  of  the  pectorals 
than  is  the  case  in  "Front  Rest"  and  the  "Prone  falling  position." 
There  is  no  difficult  balance  problem  to  complicate  matters.  The 
lower  back  and  hips  are  kept  straight  and  rigid  by  moderate  con- 
traction of  both  anterior  and  posterior  muscles  of  the  lower  trunk 
and  hip  region. 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION 


79 


Walking  forward  or  backward  on  the  hands  from  this  position 
involves  the  above-mentioned  muscular  action  on  one  side  at  a 
time.  Because  of  the  excessive  amount  of  weight  supported 
momentarily  on  one  arm,  the 
working  muscles  are  rarely 
equal  to  their  task.  This  leads 
in  the  majority  of  cases  to 
marked  disturbance  of  the 
posture  of  the  chest,  upper 
back  and  scapula.  It  is  an- 
other case  of  excessive  pec- 
toral action  induced  by 
gravity,  and  of  the  scapular 
depressors  and  adductors 
working  against  too  great 
odds  and  therefore  unable  to 
cope  with  the  situation.  For 
this  reason  the  exercise  is  an 
undesirable  one  and  should 
under  no  circumstances  be 
given  to  any  but  strong  and 
well-trained  individuals. 

39.  Arm  bending  from 
Cross  Rest.  (The  "dip"  and 
push-up.)  The  muscles  active 
in  maintaining  the  fundamen- 
tal position  in  "Cross  Rest" 
yield  to  gravity.  The  result-  FIGURE  26 

ing     movement     consists     of  CROSS  REST 

flexion  in  the  elbow,  hyper- 
extension  combined  with  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint,  ele- 
vation with  slight  abduction  and  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula, 
and  finally  a  tilting  forward  of  this  bone  on  its  transverse 
axis  in  such  a  manner  that  its  lower  angle  is  moved  backward 
and  upward,  away  from  the  posterior  surface  of  the  thorax. 
This  peculiar  displacement  is  associated  with  a  forward  position 
of  the  point  of  the  shoulder,  rounding  of  the  upper  back  and 
depression  of  the  chest.  The  whole  mal-position  is  due  to  some 
extent  to  the  powerful  action  of  the  pectorals  in  their  efforts 
to  resist  the  scapular  elevation  produced  by  gravity.  A  similar 
displacement  is  apt  to  occur  in  any  exercise  involving  support 
of  a  large  part  of  the  weight  on  the  arms,  such  as  "Front  Rest," 
"Prone  falling  position,"  "Cross  Rest."  But  in  all  these  it  may 
be  prevented  and  the  scapula  kept  in  proper  apposition  to  the 
back  by  a  sufficiently  vigorous  contraction  of  the  scapular  adduc- 


80 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


tors  and  posterior  depressors.  In  this  exercise — the  "dip" — the 
abnormal  position  of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  upper  trunk  is  not 
only  of  the  most  pronounced 
character,  but  cannot  be  pre- 
vented, no  matter  how  strong 
or  well-trained  the  individual. 
The  explanation  is  simple 
enough.  When  the  elbow 
bends  the  humerus  moves 
almost  directly  backward,  i.e., 
there  occurs  at  first  hyper- 
extension  in  the  shoulder 
joint.  The  amount  of  this 
permitted  in  the  joint  is  very 
small,  however  (from  5°  to 
10°).  When  this  is  checked 
by  the  complete  stretching  of 
the  anterior  part  of  the  cap- 
sular  ligament  of  the  shoulder 
joint,  the  two  bones — humerus 
and  scapula — are  virtually 
one.  Gravity,  acting  with 
good  leverage  through  the 
humerus,  then  pries  the 
scapula  into  the  abnormal 
position  described  above. 
The  only  structures  that  can 
hold  the  bone  down  are  the 
(serratus)  trapezius  and  rhomboid  muscles,  the  fasciae  and  the 
skin.  These  stretch  as  far  as  possible;  then,  if  the  movement 
proceeds  further,  the  upper  trunk  must  .follow  the  humerus  in 
its  backward-upward  sweep.  This  is  what  actually  happens  and 
accounts  for  the  extreme  rounding  of  the  upper  thoracic  spine 
and  depression  of  the  chest  so  characteristic  in  this  exercise. 
The  return  movement — the  "push-up" — is  accomplished  by  the 
contraction  of  the  triceps,  pectorals  and  rhomboids,  aided  by  the 
short  head  of  biceps,  coraco-brachialis  and  anterior  deltoid.  As 
was  pointed  out  in  the  analysis  of  the  faulty  type  of  "Front  Rest" 
the  extreme  contraction  of  the  pectorals  against  great  resistance 
tends  to  bring  the  muscles  of  each  side  into  line  with  each  other, 
unless  their  action  is  balanced  by  vigorous  contraction  of  their 
antagonists  posteriorly.  In  this  case  such  neutralizing  action  is 
rarely  if  ever  sufficient,  so  that,  while  it  is  possible  to  return  to 
the  correct  position  of  "Cross  Rest,"  the  usual  thing  is  that  the 
mal-position  of  scapula,  back  and  chest  remains  more  or  less 


FIGURE  27 
ARM  BENDJNG  FROM  CROSS  REST 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  81 

as  the  arms  are  straightened  and  the  body  lifted.  The  final 
return  position  very  often  resembles  the  faulty  "Front  Rest." 

Considering  the  mechanical  peculiarities  of  this  movement, 
making  a  good  posture  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body  practically 
impossible  during  the  greater  part  of  both  the  descent  and  the 
ascent;  inducing,  as  it  does,  excessive,  unbalanced  action  of  the 
pectorals  with  almost  complete  shortening  throughout;  and  bear- 
ing in  mind  the  fundamental  principle  that  the  body  tends  to 
retain  permanently  the  postures  it  assumes  when  in  action,  the 
vicious  tendency  of  this  exercise  from  a  postural  standpoint 
should  be  perfectly  obvious.  Yet  it  is  one  of  the  most  widely 
known  and  practiced  exercises  in  the  gymnasium.  It  is  usually 
the  first  thing  that  a  new  "member"  attempts.  It  seems  to  appeal 
to  young  men  and  boys,  because,  for  one  thing,  it  involves  severe 
muscular  work  of  a  rather  uncomfortable  kind,  and  the  ability 
to  repeat  the  exercise  many  times  is  therefore  presumably  an 
index  of  his  strength  and  "hardness."  This  idea  is  no  doubt  fos- 
tered by  the  fact  that  the  exercise  is,  unfortunately,  one  of  the 
routine  strength  tests  used  in  colleges  and  many  other  institu- 
tions. Again,  the  extreme  contraction  and  tension  of  the  pec- 
torals give  rise  to  sensations  which  are  somewhat  similar  to  those 
associated  with  chest  expansion,  and  this  leads  the  lay  performer 
to  think  that  he  is  doing  something  which  is  "very  good  for  chest 
development."  In  this  thought  he  is  not  infrequently  encouraged 
by  the  person  in  charge.  But,  fortunately,  the  number  of  teach- 
ers who  are  willing  to  endorse  exercises  of  this  type  is  rapidly 
diminishing. 

While  the  simple  type  on  the  parallel  bars  has  been  selected 
for  purposes  of  analysis,  there  are  many  exercises  (more  properly 
"stunts"  or  "tricks")  on  the  parallel  bars,  horizontal  bar  and 
rings,  in  which  the  mechanism  is  identical.  The  so-called 
"swinging  dip,"  by  many  supposed  to  be  less  objectionable  than 
the  "still  dip,"  differs  in  no  essential  respect  from  the  latter,  as 
far  as  the  shoulder  region  is  concerned.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  pushing  down  of  the  traveling  or  wall  parallels,  although  this 
is  milder  because  the  resistance  is  not  so  great.  What  has  been 
said  about  the  "dip"  is  true  more  or  less  of  any  movement  in 
which  the  arm  swings  excessively  backward  in  the  sagittal  plane, 
whether  moved  by  the  individual's  own  muscular  efforts,  by  his 
weight,  or  by  external  forces. 

The  training  of  the  chest  muscles  and  triceps,  which  is  the 
chief  end  sought  by  those  who  practice  such  exercises  in  good 
faith,  may  be  accomplished  as  effectively  in  other  ways,  e.g.,  by 
exercises  with  the  chest  weights,  back  to  the  weights;  by  work 
on  suspension  apparatus  with  the  hands  far  apart;  and  by  arm 
bending  from  the  "Prone  falling  position"  with  the  elbows 


82  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

moving  well  sideways.  In  all  these  it  is  at  least  possible  to  keep 
the  upper  trunk  erect,  the  back  flat  and  the  chest  expanded,  and 
so  to  favor,  rather  than  impair,  a  permanent  good  posture  by 
the  very  difficulties  successfully  overcome. 


D.      SWIMMING,   ROWING,   PADDLING,   THROWING. 

40.  The  arm  movement  in  breast  stroke  swimming  may  be 
conveniently  divided  into  three  parts.     (1)  Placing  the  hands  in 
front  of  the  chest.    This  involves,  besides  flexion  at  the  elbow  and 
wrist,  a  slight  flexion  with  a  little  abduction  in  the  shoulder  joint, 
accompanied,  as  usual,  with  some  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula. 

(2)  The  thrusting  forward  of  the  hands.    This  would  be  equiva- 
lent to  an  arm  stretching  forward-upward,  if  the  body  were  in 
the  upright  position.     Anatomically  it  means  extension  in  the 
elbow  and  wrist  joints,  flexion  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  con- 
siderable rotation  upward  with  abduction  of  the  scapula.     The 
active  muscles  are,  therefore,  the  triceps;  the  upper  pectoralis 
major,  anterior  (and  central)  deltoid,  short  (and  long)  head  of 
biceps  and  coraco-brachialis ;  the  trapezius  and  serratus  magnus. 

(3)  The  stroke  proper,  which  would  correspond  to  a  backward- 
downward  sweep  of  the  arms,  with  the  palms  turned  downward 
and  backward,  if  the  body  were  in  the  upright  position ;  in  other 
words,  extension  with  at  first  abduction,  then  adduction,  as  well 
as  rotation  inward  in  the  shoulder  joint;  rotation  downward  with 
adduction  of  the  scapula;  and  pronation  in  the  forearm.     The 
motor  muscles  are  the  posterior  and  central  deltoid,  the  latissimus 
and  teres  major,  the  lower  pectoralis  major*  and  subscapularis ; 
the   pectoralis   minor   and   rhomboids;    the    central   and    lower 
trapezius.     The  longitudinal  back  and  posterior  neck  muscles 
maintain  a  vigorous  contraction  throughout.     As  will  readily  be 
seen,  the  mechanism  is  such  as  to  compel  a  correct  posture  of  the 
head,  chest,  shoulders  and  back,  and  the  exercise  is  generally 
recognized  as  a  valuable  one  for  purposes  of  postural  improve- 
ment. 

41.  Rowing.    The  straight  backed  type  will  be  assumed,  with 
the  body  swinging  behind  as  well  as  in  front  of  the  vertical 
(about  30°  to  40°  each  way;  fixed  seat). 

When  the  oars  catch,  the  body  is  bent  sharply  at  the  hips,  the 
lower  back  is  straight  or  flexed  (in  individuals  whose  lumbar 
spines  are  capable  of  that),  the  elbow  is  extended,  the  shoulder 
joint  flexed,  the  scapula  partially  abducted,  rotated  upward  and 
elevated.  The  stroke  begins  with  extension  in  the  hip  and  lum- 
bar spine.  This  continues  throughout  and  is  supplemented 
toward  the  end  by  flexion  in  the  elbow;  extension  combined  at 


UPPER  TRUNK  AND  SHOULDER  REGION  83 

first  with  abduction  followed  by  adduction  in  the  shoulder  joint, 
as  well  as  some  rotation  outward  in  this  joint;  adduction  with 
rotation  downward  of  the  scapula.  The  active  muscles  are  the 
erector  spinse  and  hip  joint  extensors,  the  biceps  and  brachialis 
anticus,  the  central  and  posterior  deltoid  and  the  supraspinatus, 
the  infraspinatus  and  teres  minor,  the  latissimus  and  teres  major, 
the  rhomboids  and  trapezius  (lower  and  central  portions).  Con- 
scious effort  is  necessary  to  keep  the  head  back,  the  upper  back 
straight  and  the  shoulders  low.  This  requires  partial  relaxation 
of  the  anterior,  and  contraction  of  the  posterior  neck  muscles,  as 
well  as  additional  work  on  the  part  of  the  scapular  depressors 
(principally  the  lower  trapezius  and  the  latissimus).  The  re- 
covery is  accomplished  by  the  contraction  of  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles and  hip  joint  flexors  until  the  vertical  position  of  the  trunk 
has  been  passed.  After  that,  gravity  is  the  chief  motor  force  in 
causing  further  bend  at  the  hips,  and  in  the  lower  back.  At  the 
same  time  the  arms  are  thrust  forward  by  extension  in  the  elbow, 
flexion,  with  at  first  abduction,  then  adduction  and  gradual  rota- 
tion inward  in  the  shoulder  joint,  abduction  and  rotation  upward 
of  the  scapula.  (The  feathering  of  the  oar  is  the  result  of 
hyperextension  in  the  wrist  joint.)  These  movements  are  pro- 
duced by  the  triceps;  the  upper  pectoralis  major,  anterior  deltoid, 
coraco-brachialis  and  short  head  of  the  biceps;  the  serratus 
magnus  and  trapezius.  While  the  hip  joint  extensors  and  lower 
erector  spinae  relax  during  the  first  part  of  the  recovery,  they 
begin  to  contract  "eccentrically" — resisting  gravity — soon  after 
the  vertical  has  been  passed.  The  posterior  neck  muscles  and 
upper  erector  spinae  have  to  be  in  action  all  the  time,  if  the  head 
and  upper  back  are  to  be  kept  erect.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
scapular  adductors.  Rowing  of  this  type  is  favorable  to  good 
posture,  besides  being  an  excellent  general  exercise. 

42.  Paddling.  Assume  that  the  left  hand  is  high,  right  hand 
low.  The  position  at  the  beginning  of  the  stroke  has  been 
reached  by  a  twisting  of  the  trunk  to  left  and  a  slight  bend  to 
right  at  the  waist ;  by  flexion  combined  with  a  little  abduction  in 
both  shoulder  joints,  more  in  the  left  than  in  the  right;  by  abduc- 
tion with  rotation  upward  of  both  scapulae,  the  right  more  than 
the  left.  The  left  scapula  is  also  elevated  somewhat  and  there 
is  usually  a  partial  flexion  in  the  left  elbow  joint. 

The  stroke  consists  of  a  twist  to  the  right  of  the  trunk  with  a 
straightening  and  even  slight  bend  to  the  left  at  the  waist ;  then 
on  the  right  side,  extension  combined  with  increased  abduction 
and  some  rotation  inward  in  the  shoulder  joint;  moderate  adduc- 
tion and  rotation  downward  of  the  scapula ;  pronation  in  the 
forearm  and  usually  some  flexion  in  the  elbow.  On  the  left  side 
there  occur:  extension  in  the  elbow;  extension  with  adduction 


84  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

in  the  shoulder  joint;  abduction  of  the  scapula.  As  the  stroke 
progresses  the  trunk  is  also  raised  a  little  by  slight  extension  in 
the  hip  joints.  The  motor  muscles  are  therefore  the  oblique 
abdominal  and  back  muscles  and  the  extensors  of  the  hip  joint 
and  back.  On  the  right  side:  the  latissimus,  teres  major,  pos- 
terior and  central  deltoid  (and  supraspinatus),  lower  pectoralis 
major,  rhomboids  and  trapezius,  triceps  (at  first).  On  the  left 
side :  the  triceps,  lower  pectoralis  major,  pectoralis  minor,  ser- 
ratus  magnus,  latissimus  and  teres  major. 

43.  Throwing.  The  ordinary  overhand  type  will  be  assumed. 
The  arm  is  raised,  at  first  a  little  forward,  then  sideways-upward 
and  backward,  and  the  hand  brought  behind  and  above  the 
shoulder,  preparatory  to  the  delivery,  by  flexion  in  the  elbow, 
flexion,  abduction  and  rotation  outward  in  the  shoulder  joint, 
and  adduction  of  the  scapula.  At  the  same  time,  the  trunk  is 
twisted  to  the  right,  the  weight  is  shifted  to  the  right  foot,  and 
the  advance  of  the  left  foot  is  begun.  The  motor  muscles  for  this 
part  of  the  movement  are  the  biceps,  etc.,  the  deltoid,  infraspi- 
natus  and  tere*s  minor ;  the  trapezius  and  rhomboids,  the  oblique 
abdominal  and  back  muscles  which  rotate  the  trunk  to  the  right. 

The  throw  proper,  or  delivery,  consists  in  the  first  place  of  a 
twisting  of  the  trunk  to  the  left  with  transfer  of  the  weight  to 
the  advancing  left  foot.  At  the  same  time  the  segments  of  the 
upper  extremity  execute  a  series  of  movements  which  may  be 
described  as  abduction  with  rotation  upward  of  the  scapula,  a 
forward  movement  of  the  humerus,  while  remaining  horizontal 
(bringing  the  shoulder  joint  to  a  position  of  flexion  from  a  posi- 
tion of  abduction  with  rotation  outward).  Then  follow  exten- 
sion in  the  elbow,  and  straightening  of  the  wrist  (previously 
hyperextended).  The  muscles  responsible  for  this  part  of  the 
movement  are :  the  oblique  abdominal  and  back  muscles  which 
rotate  the  trunk  to  the  left  (as  well  as  the  extensors  of  the  right 
hip  and  knee  joints)  ;  the  serratus  magnus  and  pectoralis  minor; 
the  pectoralis  major,  subscapularis  and  anterior  deltoid;  the 
triceps  (and  the  flexors  of  the  wrist  joint). 

The  amount  of  momentum  developed  depends  largely  on  the 
proper  sequence  and  increasing  speed  of  the  movements  of  the 
various  segments,  from  the  center  to  the  periphery.  This  includes 
keeping  the  elbow  in  front  of  the  hand  until  the  last  moment. 


B.    LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION. 
THE  NEED  AND  VALUE  OF  MOTOR  TRAINING  IN  THIS  REGION. 

In  analyzing  the  mechanism  of  movements  involving  the 
shoulder  and  upper  trunk  region,  attention  was  frequently  called 
to  the  close  association  of  the  joints  and  muscles  of  the  arm, 
shoulder  girdle  and  upper  spine.  Unless  conscious  effort  is  made 
to  avoid  it,  any  movement  of  one  of  these  parts  is  apt  to  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  other  two,  thereby  changing  their  relative  positions. 
The  definitions  of  most  of  the  movements  described  were  such  as 
to  require  inhibition,  or  breaking  up,  of  some  of  those  natural 
associations  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other  to  cultivate  new 
and  sometimes  rather  difficult  associations.  The  purpose  of  such 
definitions  is  to  induce  under  all  conditions  well  coordinated 
action  of  the  muscles  responsible  for  good  posture  of  head,  neck, 
shoulders,  upper  back  and  chest;  to  maintain  and  to  increase 
mobility  of  the  joints  in  directions  where  mobility  gradually 
tends  to  diminish ;  and  to  train  the  power  of  localization  of  move- 
ment with  a  view  gradually  to  increase  the  ability  to  localize 
muscular  contraction.  This  ultimately  makes  for  efficiency  and 
economy  of  effort.  Repeated  successful  efforts  of  this  kind, 
under  increasing  difficulties,  give  the  individual  the  sense  of  good 
posture,  teach  him  how  to  assume  it,  and,  we  hope,  give  him  the 
ambition  as  well  as  the  ability  to  form  better  postural  and  motor 
habits.  In  the  growing  individual  we  may  reasonably  expect  that 
by  persistent  practice  of  gymnastic  exercises  of  this  kind  (with  a 
good,  erect  posture  maintained  throughout)  the  structural  rela- 
tions, as  well  as  the  motor  habits,  will  be  most  favorably  influ-  , 
enced.  It  is  a  case  of  "bending  the  twig"  in  the  direction  we 
wish  it  to  grow. 

In  the  lower  trunk  and  hip  region,  the  relations  as  regards 
movements  and  positions  of  the  various  parts — spine,  pelvis  and 
lower  extremity — are  analogous  to  those  existing  in  the  upper 
trunk  and  shoulder  region.  It  is  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible, 
to  make  extensive  or  powerful  movements  of  one  without  involv- 
ing the  others.  Postural  relations  are  equally  interdependent. 
Here,  even  more  than  in  the  upper  trunk  and  shoulder,  gravity 
plays  an  important  role,  as  the  region  is  especially  adapted  for 
weight-bearing.  Any  considerable  deviation  from  the  straight 
line,  or  any  inequality  or  asymmetry  in  one  place  may  always  be 
expected  to  involve  compensatory  adjustment  above  or  below. 
For  example,  if  the  right  leg  is  longer  than  the  left,  the  right  hip 


86  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

will  be  higher  or  project  more  than  the  left,  and  the  lower  spine 
will  be  curved  with  the  convexity  to  the  left.  Similarly,  if  the 
leg  is  raised  quickly  and  forcibly  to  one  side,  the  pelvis  will  be 
tilted  and  the  lumbar  spine  convex  to  the  opposite  side.  Again, 
such  an  exercise  as  leg  raising  backward  is  entirely  a  displace- 
ment of  the  pelvis  involving  movement  of  complex  character  in 
the  opposite  hip  joint  and  the  lumbar  spine.  In  short,  any  exten- 
sive movement  of  the  femur  is  accompanied  by  changes  in  the 
position  of  the  pelvis,  brought  about  chiefly  by  movement  in  the 
lumbar  spine.  This  is  partly  due  to  the  relatively  limited  range 
of  motion  in  the  hip  joint  (as  compared  with  the  shoulder  joint), 
partly,  as  in  the  shoulder  region,  to  the  close  functional  associa- 
tion of  the  muscles.  Finally,  even  slight  movements  in  one  or 
both  hip  joints  in  the  upright  position  involve  changes  of  posture 
in  the  pelvis  and  lumbar  spine  on  account  of  the  redistribution  of 
the  weight  which  is  a  necessary  concomitant  in  such  movements. 

The  need  for  varied  and  systematic  training  of  the  large  and 
powerful  neuromuscular  mechanisms  of  this  region  is  perhaps 
not  as  fully  recognized  as  in  the  case  of  the  upper  trunk  and 
shoulder  region.  The  relatively  limited  scope  and  variety  of 
movements  in  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  the  usually  vague  and 
undefined  character  of  their  combinations  and  the  naturally  close 
association  of  many  of  the  muscle  groups  might  suggest  on  the 
one  hand  that  this  is  not  a  very  fertile  field  for  the  cultivation  of 
fine  distinctions  and  delicate  adjustment  of  movement;  on  the 
other,  that  if  any  results  in  these  directions  are  attainable,  they 
may  not  represent  enough  value  to  be  worth  striving  for.  But 
a  little  observation  and  analysis  will  show  that  the  motor  adjust- 
ments in  this  region,  while  not  as  extensive  and  varied  as  in  the 
shoulder  region,  owing  to  the  greater  prominence  of  the  support- 
ing function,  are  nevertheless  more  numerous  and  complex  than 
at  first  might  appear.  Many  of  them  are  capable  of  division  into 
their  component  elements,  which  may  be  trained  separately  or 
rearranged  in  new  combinations,  thereby  improving  the  power  of 
localization,  eliminating  unnecessary  or  undesirable  features, 
increasing  variety  and  accuracy  of  adjustment  and  so  enlarging 
the  individual's  subjective  control  and  his  adaptability  to  his 
environment. 

The  perfect  automatism  of  a  great  many  coordinations  having 
to  do  with  locomotion  and  the  upright  position  and  acquired  so 
long  ago  that  we  are  unaware  of  their  existence  or  have  dis- 
missed them  from  our  minds  as  of  no  further  interest,  is  partly 
responsible  for  the  tendency  to  neglect  the  finer  motor  training  in 
this  region.  Here,  even  more  than  is  the  case  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  body,  we  are  apt  to  let  things  be  "as  the  Lord  made  them." 
Because  of  the  deeply  grooved  motor  and  postural  habits,  because 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  87 

of  the  fundamental  character  of  many  associated  movements,  we 
are  loth  to  attempt  to  modify  or  break  up  these  deeply  rooted 
associations.  The  difficulties  encountered  are  undoubtedly  great 
and  the  results  not  always  as  encouraging  as  we  should  like.  But 
such  considerations  should  not  deter  us  from  trying  to  improve 
and  diversify  motor  control  in  this  region  by  selecting,  defining 
and  teaching  gymnastic  exercises  that  demand  the  utmost  efforts 
on  the  part  of  our  pupils  to  assume  and  retain  under  all  condi- 
tions the  best  posture  of  which  they  are  capable;  to  move  with 
speed  and  precision,  or  with  deliberation  and  steadiness;  to 
appreciate  small  differences  of  plane,  direction,  rhythm,  momen- 
tum, etc.  The  ability  to  localize  movement  and  even  to  some 
extent  muscular  contraction  in  this  region  is  one  of  the  factors 
which  determine  the  gait.  Proper  weight  distribution  is  another. 
The  sense  of  balance  and  rhythm  is  equally  important  in 
this  respect.  All  of  these  elements  influence  posture,  not  only 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  but  in  the  upper  as  well.  All  con- 
tribute largely  to  the  general  bearing  of  the  individual,  to  the 
degree  of  grace  and  efficiency  of  his  movements.  All  may  be 
cultivated  by  carefully  defined  and  properly  executed  gymnastic 
exercises.  If  the  teaching  and  guidance  are  what  they  should  be, 
and  if  the  pupils  can  be  induced  to  put  forth  the  requisite  effort 
between,  as  well  as  during,  the  lessons,  the  right  kind  of  motor 
ideals,  concepts  and  habits  can  in  this  way  be  most  effectively 
conveyed  and  inculcated. 

From  the  physiological  standpoint  vigorous  movements  of  the 
lower  trunk  and  extremity  rank  first  in  importance.  Strong  con- 
tractions of  the  abdominal  and  lower  trunk  muscles  and  of  the 
large  groups  of  hip  and  thigh  muscles  profoundly  influence  the 
functions  of  all  the  great  vital  organs.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as 
regards  the  training  of  good  posture  and  motor  control,  definite, 
clean-cut,  localized  movements  are  probably  more  effective  than 
movements  of  the  opposite  character,  if  for  no  other  reason  than 
that  they  demand  more  work  in  a  given  time.  However,  the 
advantage  of  this  style  of  work  is  here  less  obvious.  In  the 
beginning,  before  a  sufficient  amount  of  coordination  has  been 
acquired,  it  is  admittedly  less  effective,  as  time  has  to  be  spent 
in  drilling  certain  fundamental  details  which  require  a  relatively 
small  amount  of  muscular  action,  or  at  any  rate  break  up  the 
continuity  of  the  work. 

ANATOMICAL  REVIEW. 

Before  taking  up  the  discussion  of  the  mechanism  of  gymnastic 
movements,  a  resume  of  the  principal  anatomical  facts,  which 
form  a  basis  for  such  discussion,  will  be  of  advantage. 


88  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

I.      JOINTS. 

1.  The  lumbar  spine.    On  account  of  the  relative  thickness  of 
the   intervertebral    disks    and   the   comparative   laxness    of   the 
capsular    and    other    ligaments,    flexion,    extension    and    lateral 
bendings  are  freer  here  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  spine. 
The  normal  position  of  the  region  is  one  of  hyperextension,  that 
is,  concave  posteriorly.     This  may  be  carried  considerably  fur- 
ther.    The  opposite  movement,   starting  from  extreme  hyper- 
extension,  to  and  a  little  beyond  the  straight  line,  leading  to  a 
slight  reversal  of  the  normal  curve  (in  the  average  young  person 
at  least),  must  all  be  included  in  the  term  flexion,  as  there  is  no 
term  which  describes  the  return  from  the  position  of  hyper- 
extension.     Sometimes  the  term  straightening  will  be  used  to 
express  this.    In  flexion,  extension  and  hyperextension,  as  well  as 
in  lateral  bendings,  the  two  or  three  lowest  thoracic  vertebrae 
move  as  the  lumbar,  but  less  extensively.    They  may  therefore  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  lumbar  region  in  these  respects. 

Rotation — a  twisting  of  the  column  on  an  axis  passing  through 
the  bodies  of  the  vertebra? — is  very  limited,  owing  to  the  plane 
of  the  surfaces  by  which  the  articular  processes  meet.  These  sur- 
faces are  vertical  and  face  more  or  less  inward  and  outward,  so 
that  true  rotation,  involving  a  gliding  of  these  surfaces  on  each 
other,-- is  effectively  prevented  by  the  locking  of  the  articular 
processes.  There  is,  however,  a  slight  amount  of  movement  cor- 
responding to  rotation,  made  possible  by  the  fact  that  the  articular 
surfaces  do  not  approximate  each  other  very  closely.  This  loose- 
ness of  fit,  and  the  leeway  thus  allowed,  in  conjunction  with  suc- 
cessive alternation  of  flexion,  lateral  movement  and  extension 
between  contiguous  vertebrae,  result  in  a  kind  of  spiral  move- 
ment which  to  a  limited  extent  (amounting  to  perhaps  from  5° 
to  15°)  takes  the  place  of  true  rotation. 

2.  The  sacro-iliac  joint.     The  sacrum  is  wedge-shaped  both 
from  above  downward  and  from  before  backward.     The  planes 
of  its  articular  surfaces  and  those  of  the  ilia  even  in  the  normal 
position  are  oblique,  converging  backward  and  upward,  so  that 
the  upper  end  of  the  sacrum,  receiving  the  weight  of  the  whole 
trunk,  tends  to  be  displaced  forward  and  downward,  the  lower 
end  backward  and  upward.     The  sacro-iliac  ligaments,  anterior 
and  posterior,  and  especially  the  latter,  limit  this  tilting  of  the 
sacrum  and  prevent  it  from  slipping  away  from  between  the  ilia. 
The  strong,  short  fibres  of  the  posterior  ligaments  are  the  chief 
agents  in  transmitting  the  weight  of  the  trunk  to  the  ilia,  espe- 
cially when  the  pelvis  is  carried  in  a  position  of  greater  than 
normal  obliquity.     Under  the  opposite  conditions,  that  is,  when 
the   plane   of   the   pelvis   is   nearer   the   horizontal    than   under 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  89 

normal  conditions,  the  sacrum  is  tilted  in  such  a  way  as  to 
approach  the  vertical.  Its  upper  end  is  then  wedged  in  between 
the  ilia,  spreading  them  apart.  In  this  case  a  part  of  the  weight 
is  transmitted  directly  from  one  bone  to  the  other,  causing* exces- 
sive pressure  of  the  joint  surfaces  on  each  other.  Both  extremes 
of  posture  predispose  to  pathological  conditions  in  the  joints 
(Goldthwaite). 

These  movements  of  the  sacrum  on  a  horizontal  axis  always 
accompany  movements  in  the  lumbar  spine  and  hip  joint.  While 
they  are  very  limited  in  extent,  the  fact  that  they  occur  at  all 
under  normal  conditions,  even  in  adult  males,  is  of  interest  from 
a  gymnastic  standpoint  chiefly  on  account  of  the  influence  of 
posture  on  the  maintenance  or  restoration  of  healthy  conditions 
in  the  joints,  as  shown  by  Goldthwaite's  recent  investigation  of 
this  subject.* 

3.  The  hip  joint.  The  deep  acetabular  cavity  and  the  tight- 
fitting  capsular  and  ilio-femoral  ligaments,  while  making  for 
strength  and  security,  also  reduce  to  some  extent  the  mobility  of 
the  joint.  Being  a  ball  and  socket  joint,  all  kinds  of  movement 
are  nevertheless  permitted  and  are  fairly  free.  Extension,  how- 
ever, does  not  go  further  than  to  bring  the  femur  into  line  with 
the  trunk.  Hyperextension,  that  is,  a  backward  movement  of  the 
femur  on  the  pelvis,  is  prevented  by  the  ilio-femoral  ligament, 
which  completely  locks  the  two  bones  in  the  position  of  extension. 

Like  the  shoulder  joint  the  hip  joint  is  surrounded  on  all  sides 
by  muscles  or  tendons.  These  serve  as  accessory,  elastic  liga- 
ments, checking  movements  before  the  proper  ligaments  have 
become  stretched,  thus  relieving  them  from  too  sudden  and  vio- 
lent tension.  At  the  same  time  this  intimate  muscular  connec- 
tion between  the  two  bones  leads  to  a  participation  of  the  pelvis 
in  the  movements  of  the  femur  long  before  the  limits  of  motion 
in  the  hip  joint  have  been  reached.  The  muscles,  with  the  ilio- 
femoral  ligament,  also  steady  the  pelvis  on  the  femur  in  the 
upright  position,  and  especially  in  movements  and  transitory  or 
sustained  positions  on  one  leg. 

II.       MUSCLES. 

1.  The  flexors  of  the  lumbar  and  lower  thoracic  spine  are  the 
straight  and  oblique  abdominal  muscles.  Being  attached  to  the 
brim  of  the  pelvis  and  the  lower  circumference  of  the  thorax, 
they  will  draw  these  two  points  together.-  This  can  only  be  done 
by  flexion  in  the  lower  spine,  that  is,  by  a  straightening  and 
reversal  of  the  natural  anteriorly  convex  curve  in  this  region. 

*A  Consideration  of  the  Pelvic  Articulations  from  an  Anatomical.  Pathological  and 
Clinical  Standpoint.  J.  E.  Goldthwaite  and  R.  B.  Osgood,  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical 
Journal,  CLIL,  21  and  22,  pp.  593-634. 


90  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

This  movement  may  be  called  flexion  of  the  trunk  on  the  pelvis, 
or  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk,  according  to  which  is  the  more 
fixed  part. 

If  flexion  in  the  lower  spine  is  prevented  by  contraction  of  the 
extensors,  shortening  of  the  abdominal  muscles  will  cause  retrac- 
tion of  the  abdomen,  with  or  without  depression  of  the  chest 
according  to  the  amount  of  Resistance  offered  by  the  muscles  of 
inspiration. 

The  extensors  of  the  lower  spine  are  the  erector  spinse  and  its 
primary  divisions,  the 'lower  fibres  of  the  spinalis  and  semi- 
spinalis  dorsi,  the  lower  multifidus  spinse  and  the  lumbar  inter- 
spinales.  All  of  these  will  be  referred  to  as  the  erector  spinse 
group  or  as  the  lower  erector  spinse. 

The  muscles  which  are  active  in  lateral  b endings  of  the  spine 
are  the  abdominal  muscles,  the  erector  spinse  (including  the 
intertransver sales),  the  quadratus  lumborum,  the  serratus  posti- 
cus  inferior  and  under  some  conditions  the  latissimus  dorsi,  all 
on  one  side.  Whether  the  muscles  on  the  side  toward  which 
the  movement  takes  place  or  those  on  the  opposite  side  are 
active  depends  on  the  relation  of  gravity  or  external  forces  to  the 
movement. 

The  rotators  of  the  spine  to  the  left  are:  The  left  serratus 
posticus  inferior,  the  left  erector  spinse  and  its  divisions,  the  left 
internal  oblique  abdominal  muscle;  the  right  serratus  posticus 
superior,  the  right  semi-spinalis  dorsi,  the  right  multifidus  spinse, 
the  right  rotatores  spinse,  the  right  levatores  costarum,  the  right 
external  oblique  abdominal  muscle. 

4 

2.     The  hip  joint  muscles: 

Flexors:  Psoas  and  iliacus;  sartor ius;  rectus  femoris;  pec- 
tineus ;  adductor  longus,  adductor  brevis ;  pyriformis. 

Extensors:  Gluteus  maximus,  gluteus  medius  (posterior  por- 
tion) ;  the  so-called  hamstring  muscles — biceps  (flexor  cruris), 
semitendinosus,  semimembranosus. 

Abductors:  Gluteus  maximus;  gluteus  medius;  gluteus  mini- 
mus; tensor  fascise  latse  (also  the  deep  rotators,  except  the 
obturator  externus,  in  the  sitting  position). 

Adductors:  Adductor  magnus;  adductor  longus;  adductor 
brevis ;  pectineus ;  gracilis. 

Rotators  inward:  Tensor  fascise  latse;  gluteus  medius  (anterior 
part)  ;  gluteus  minimus  (anterior  part). 

Rotators  outward:  Gluteus  maximus;  gluteus  medius  (pos- 
terior) ;  psoas  and  iliacus ;  sartorius,  pectineus ;  the  three  adduc- 
tors; the  deep  rotators — pyriformis,  obturator  internus,  gemelli, 
obturator  externus,  quadratus  femoris. 

It  will  be  seen   from  the  above  that  many  of  the  muscles 


92 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


enumerated  act  in  more  than  one  capacity,  in  that  respect  resem- 
bling the  varied  actions  of  many  or  most  of  the  muscles  in  the 
shoulder  region.  The  reasons  are  the  same,  viz.:  (1)  the  exten- 
sive lines  of  attachment  of  some  of  the  muscles,  as  the  glutei, 
by  which  different  portions  of  the  same  muscle  act  from  opposite 
directions  and  under  different  mechanical  conditions,  such  as 
leverage,  obliquity  of  pull,  etc.;  (2)  the  proximity  of  many 
muscles  to  the  joint,  and  their  oblique  direction  with  reference 
to  two  or  more  axes  of  motion,  as,  for  example,  the  tensor  fasciae 
latae,  the  sartorius,  the  gluteus  maximus  and  the  deep  rotators. 
They  are  thereby  able  to  contribute  to  several  kinds  of  movement 
or  to  act  differently  in  different  positions  of  the  joint. 

The  action  of  the  hip  joint  muscles  is  further  complicated,  in 
certain  movements,  by  the  fact  that  some  of  them  are  attached 
directly  or  indirectly  (through  the  fascia  lata)  to  the  lower  leg 
and  thus  produce  movement  or  influence  positions  in  the  knee 
joint.  Notable  examples  of  this  are  the  rectus  femoris,  the  sar- 
torius and  gracilis,  and  the  hamstring  muscles.  Owing  to  this 
the  mechanism  of  many  movements  in  the  hip  joint  varies  as 
regards  degree,  kind  and  complexity  of  muscular  action,  accord- 
ing to  accompanying  movements,  or  inhibition  of  movements, 
in  the  knee  joint. 


GYMNASTIC  MOVEMENTS  AND  POSITIONS. 


A.      DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  STANDING   POSITION. 

The  distribution  of  weight  and 
its  relation  to  posture  in  the 
lower  spine,  the  hip  and  knee 
joints  vary  considerably  in 
different  types  of  habitual, 
easy  standing  position.  In 
the  best  of  these  the  thoracic 
curve  is  moderate,  long  and 
even,  the  lumbar  curve  low 
and  not  too  sharp.  The 
weight  line  passes  in  front  of, 
but  fairly  close  to  the  thoracic 
spine;  through  the  bodies  of 
the  upper  lumbar  vertebrae, 
behind  the  lower;  slightly  -i 
behind  the  hip  joint;  and  /.  ?  3.  4.  -5. 
through,  or  a  little  in  front  of ,  FIGURE  30  DlFFERENT  TYPES  OF 
the  center  of  the  knee  joint.  STANDING  POSITION 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  93 

When  the  tone  of  the  upper  back  and  abdominal  muscles  is 
good,  excessive  tension  on  the  spinal  ligaments  and  compression 
of  the  anterior  or  posterior  edges  of  the  intervertebral  disks  do 
not  occur,  and  the  spine  is  balanced  and  kept  in  an  easy,  erect 
position  without  much  conscious  muscular  effort. 

The  slight  forward  position  of  the  hips  "with  normal  pelvic 
obliquity  (the  plane  of  the  true  pelvis  about  60°  from  the  verti- 
cal), insures  extension  in  the  hip  joint.  The  weight  line  falling 
behind  the  center  of  this  joint,  gravity  tends  to  produce  hyper- 
extension,  but  this  is  prevented  by  the  ilio-femoral  ligament, 
which  is  put  on  the  stretch  when  the  femur  is  in  line  with  the 
trunk.  Gravity,  in  connection  with  this  ligament,  thus  relieves 
the  extensor  muscles  from  much  responsibility  in  keeping  the 
pelvis  steady  on  the  femur  and  the  hip  joint  in  extension. 

In  the  knee  joint  similar  mechanical  conditions  insure  the 
extended  position  without  much  muscular  effort.  But  here  the 
weight  line  rarely  falls  far  enough  in  front  of  the  joint  to  lock 
it  completely,  and  a  very  slight  shifting  of  the  weight  backward 
makes  it  fall  behind  the  center  of  the  joint,  so  that  a  slight  con- 
traction of  the  quadriceps  is  often  necessary. 

2,  Of  the  undesirable  variations  from  the  easy  standing  posi- 
tion described  in  the  preceding  paragraph  two  main  types 
are  fairly  common.     In  one  of  these  the  hips  are  carried 
excessively   forward,   the   lumbar  curve   is   low,   not  very 
marked,  sometimes  almost  obliterated ;  while  the  thoracic 
is  pronounced  and  long,  often  encroaching  on  the  upper 
lumbar  region.     The  extreme  forward  position  of  the  hips 
leads  to  decreased  pelvic  obliquity,  the  plane  of  the  pelvis 
approaching  too  nearly  the  horizontal  and  the  sacrum  too 
nearly  the  vertical,  wedged  in  between  and  spreading  the 
ilia.    The  weight  line  falls  considerably  behind  the  hip  joint 
and  also  slightly  behind  the  knee  joint.    This  leads  to  abso- 
lute extension  in  the  hip  joint  with  strong  tension  on  the 
ilio-femoral  ligament  and  allows  complete  relaxation  of  the 
extensor  muscles  of  this  joint.    The  knee  joint  is  often  in 
a  state  of  partial  flexion  and  is  kept  from  further  flexion 
only  by  a  moderate^  contraction  of  the  quadriceps  muscle. 

?.     This  type  of  relaxed  standing  position  is  usually  associated 
with  poor  general  muscular  tone  and  development,  the  atro- 
phied condition  of  the  gluteal  region  being  particularly  striking. 

3.  In  the  other  type  the  hips  are  carried  too  far  back,  the  lum- 
bar curve  is  pronounced,  long  or  high,  often  including  the  two  or 
three  lowest  thoracic  vertebrae.     The  thoracic  curve  is  also  apt 
to  be  excessive,  but  short  and  high.     The  weight  line  falls  well 


94 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


3. 


FIG.  31.    "HOLLOW  BACK"  POSITION 


in  front  of  the  thoracic,  con- 
siderably behind  the  lumbar 
spine,  and  either  through  or 
more  or  less  in  front  of  the  hip 
as  well  as  the  knee  joint. 
Individuals  of  this  "hol- 
low-back" type  are  not 
infrequently  strong  and 
heavily  muscled,  but  the 
upper  back  and  particu- 
larly the  abdominal  mus- 
cles are  of  relatively  low 
tone  and  habitually  re- 
laxed. Gravity  acting  with 
good  leverage  owing  to  the 
already  excessive  curves 
exerts  a  strong  passive  ten- 
sion on  these  muscles  as 
well  as  on  the  spinal  liga- 
ments (pressure  on  the 
9  edges  of  the  disks),  and  so 
tends  to  increase  the  curves  still  further.  The  posterior  position 
of  the  hips  is  associated  with  too  great  pelvic  obliquity,  and  this 
in  turn  means  excessive  tipping  forward  of  (the  upper  end  of) 
the  sacrum,  approximation  of  the  ilia,  spreading  of  the  ischia, 
and  too  great  tension  on  the  sacro-iliac  ligaments.  The  weight 
line  falling  in  front  of  the  hip  joint,  gravity  constantly  tends  to 
increase  the  partial  flexion  in  this  joint,  which  is  another  feature 
associated  with  too  great  pelvic  obliquity.  This  neces- 
sitates constant  moderate  contraction  of  the  hip  j^int 
extensors.  The  knee  joint  is  kept  locked  in  the  ex- 
tended position  by  gravity. 

4.  A  third,  less  common  type,  resembles  the  pre- 
ceding in  the  excessive,  elongated  curve  of  the  lumbar 
region  (including  the  lower  thoracic  vertebrae),  in  the 
increased  pelvic  obliquity  and  in  the  flexed  position  of 
the  hip  joint.     It  differs  from  it  in  the  conformation 
and   posture   of   the  upper  part   of   the  body,   being 
usually  associated  with  well-shaped  chest  and  shoul- 
ders, fairly  straight  and  flat  upper  back.     The  mus- 
cular tone   is   good   generally,   and   especially   in   the 
back.    The  abdomen,  however,  is  apt  to  be  somewhat 
relaxed,  but  less  so  than  in  the  preceding  type. 

5.  Faulty    posture    in    the    lower    trunk    and    hip 
region  induced  by  gymnastic  exercises.    Closely  resem- 
bling the  last  described  variety  of  relaxed  or  semi-relaxed  posi- 


5. 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  95 

tion,  as  regards  the  lower  part  of  the  body,  is  the  position  with 
exaggerated  and  usually  high  lumbar  curve  which  occurs  as  a 
by-product  of  misdirected  or  poorly  localized  efforts  to  straighten 
the  upper  back  and  to  improve  the  posture  of  head,  chest  and 
shoulders. 

All  gymnastic  standing  positions,  whether  correct  or  incorrect, 
differ  from  all  varieties  of  easy  standing  position  in  that  con- 
scious, vigorous  contraction  of  the  upper  back  muscles  is  de- 
manded in  order  to  obtain  a  good,  erect  posture  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  body.  The  latter  may  or  may  not  be  accomplished,  but.  in 
any  case  the  effort  nearly  always  leads  to  increased  lumbar  hyper- 
extension  and  pelvic  obliquity.  The  reasons  for  this  are  as  fol- 
lows: Strong  contraction  of  the  erector  spinae  group  cannot, 
without  special  training  or  skill,  be  confined  to  the  higher  levels, 
the  different  portions  of  this  group  acting  as  one  muscle.  This 
muscular  mass  is  thickest  and  most  compactly  arranged  in  the 
lower  back.  Here,  running  along  the  naturally  concave  lumbar 
spine  it  works  under  more  favorable  mechanical  conditions  than 
higher  up,  where  it  covers  the  convex  thoracic  spine  and  pos- 
terior chest  wall.  The  lumbar  spine  has  much  greater  freedom  of 
movement,  especially  in  a  backward  direction,  and  so  offers  less 
resistance,  than  the  thoracic  region,  encumbered  as  this  is  with 
the  relatively  rigid  and  heavy  chest.  Finally,  gravity  from  the 
outset  favors  increased  hyperextension  in  the  lower  back,  while 
it  opposes  extension  in  the  thoracic  region,  at  least  until  the 
upper  trunk  has  been  tilted  backward  considerably  (by  hyper- 
extension  in  the  lumbar  spine). 

The  induced  lordosis  resulting  from  the  general  contraction 
of  the  w1"ole  erector  spinae  group  in  attempts  to  stand  up  straight 
is  even  rn^re  pronounced  in  many  gymnastic  exercises  involving 
strong  contraction  of  the  posterior  scapular  muscles  and  par- 
ticularly of  the  latissimus  dorsi.  These  superficial  back  muscles 
are  closely  associated  with  the  erector  spinae  group,  maximal 
contraction  of  one  set  usually  inducing  action  of  the  other.  The 
latissimus  also  acts  directly  on  the  lower  spine,  pulling  it  for- 
ward, as  well  as  indirectly  through  its  pull  on  the  three  lowest 
ribs.  Then  there  are  many  gymnastic  exercises  in  which  power- 
ful contraction  of  the  lower  erector  spinae  is  necessary  for  suc- 
cessful performance,  as,  for  example,  in  leg  raising  backward, 
prone  lying  position,  and  many  vaults.  There  are  also  some 
useful  exercises  in  which  marked  hyperextension  due  to  gravity 
or  to  the  pull  of  the_psoas  and  ilicus  muscles  is  an  almost 
unavoidable  feature.  Examples  of  this  are  the  prone  hanging  and 
the  prone  falling  position,  opposite  (foot  grasp)  sitting  backward 
leaning  of  trunk,  the  hand  stand.  All  gymnastic  exercises  tending 
to  produce  this  abnormal  posture  in  the  lower  back  may  be  justly 


96  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

criticised  on  this  account  and  can  only  be  defended  on  grounds 
of  general  or  special  value  in  other  directions,  or  by  defining  and 
teaching  them  in  such  a  way  that  this  fault  will  be  largely  or 
wholly  eliminated.  In  many  cases  this  can  be  done  by  patience 
and  persistence  in  the  teaching  and  by  judicious  progression. 
(The  muscular  action  necessary  to  prevent  or  correct  this  faulty 
posture  will  be  discussed  under  the  fundamental  gymnastic  stand-- 
ing position.) 

Aside  from  aesthetic  considerations,  excessive  "hollow"  in  the 
lower  back,  whether  habitual  or  induced  by  conscious  muscular 
contraction,  is  undesirable  for  many  reasons.  The  associated 
abnormal  position  of  the  pelvis  and  its  joints  has  already  been 
mentioned.  Discomfort,  painful  fatigue — popularly  referred  to 
as  weakness — in  the  lower  back,  resulting  from  long  standing  in 
this  position,  is  very  common.  There  is  greater  liability  to  injury 
— sprains  of  the  spinal  and  sacro-iliac  joints — in  falls  or  missteps, 
partly  because  the  weight  acts  with  greater  leverage  and  on  liga- 
ments already  stretched ;  partly  and  chiefly  because  in  the  greatly 
relaxed  condition  of  the  abdominal  muscles  so  commonly  asso- 
ciated with  lordosis,  these  muscles  fail  to  give  that  support  to 
the  spinal  column  and  that  elastic  resistance  to  sudden  excessive 
hyperextension  which  would  save  the  joints  and  ligaments  from 
too  great  strain.  Finally,  the  marked  forward  convexity  in  the 
lower  back  and  the  relaxed  abdominal  wall  allow  the  abdominal 
organs,  suspended  in  their  mesenteric  sling  from  the  upper  lumbar 
spine,  to  sag  unduly  forward-downward  and  deprive  them  of 
their  proper  support,  conditions  which  are  inimical  to  their 
healthy  functioning. 

In  view  of  the  actual  and  potential  disadvantages  of  exag- 
gerated curve  in  the  lower  back,  and  because  so  many  gymnastic 
exercises  can  be  done, in  a  way  to  produce  or  aggravate  this 
condition,  it  should  be  one  of  the  legitimate  objects  of  gymnastic 
work  and  the  duty  of  those  who  teach  it  to  furnish  definite  and 
systematic  training  of  a  kind  calculated  to  make  this  fault  less 
accentuated  when  it  already  exists,  and  to  prevent,  as  far  as 
possible,  its  occurrence  as  a  by-product  of  gymnastic  movements 
and  positions.  In  the  selection,  definition,  progression  and  teach- 
ing of  the  exercises  this  element  shoulcj^^ays  be  reckoned  with, 
and  no  performance  accepted  as  satisfa^Ky  in  which  the  posture 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  body  is  markedly  defective. 

While  the  muscular  tone  and  control  necessary  for  the  preven- 
tion and  correction  of  excessive  lumbar  hyperextension  and  pelvic 
obliquity  may  to  some  extent  be  acquired  by  gymnastic  class 
exercises,  it  will  always  be  found  helpful  and  sometimes  neces- 
sary, especially  in  the  beginning,  to  supplement  the  general 
instruction  with  individual  suggestion  and  help.  Actually  placing 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION 


97 


the  pupil  in  the  forced  correct  position  by  manipulation  may  be 
the  only  way  to  give  him  a  clear  idea  of  it,  to  make  him  acquainted 
with  the  bodily  sensations  which  accompany  the  change  in  weight 
distribution  and  the  muscular  efforts  required  to  retain  it.  The 
memory  of  these  will  then  serve  as  a  guide  in  repeated  efforts  on 
his  part  to  assume  and  maintain  the  correct  posture  under  vary- 
ing conditions,  gymnastic  or  otherwise. 

6.  The  gymnastic  fundamental  standing  position.  The  defini- 
tion and  mechanism  of  the  fundamental  position  in  the  upper 
trunk  and  shoulder  region  has  been  given  in  an  earlier  chapter 
(page  21).  In  the  lower  part  of  the  body  conscious  effort 
should  be  made  to  straighten  the  lumbar-Sfune,  or  at  any  rate  to 
prevent  increased  hyperextension  ;  to  reduce  pelvic  obliquity, 
and  to  keep  the  h_ip  joint  in  complete  extension.  The  postural 

relations  of  ffie  spine,  pelvis  and  lower  extremity  should 
•*     at  least  be  made  to  equal  those  obtaining  in  the  best  type 

of   easy   standing   position,   as    regards   proximity   of   the 

different  parts  to  the  weight  line.     In  any  case  the  align- 

ment of  upper  and  lower  spine,  pelvis  and  leg  should  be 

as  absolute,  and  the  undulations  in   front  and  behind  the 

weight   line   as   limited   as   indi- 

vidual    peculiarities    will    allow. 

This  demands  a  strong  contrac- 

tion  of   the   abdominal   muscles 

at  all  times,  and,  in  the  begin- 

ning, also  of  the  glutei  and  ham- 

string  muscles.      The   effedt    of 

the  action  of  both  groups  is  to 

reduce     the     obliquity     of  t  the 

pelvis,  i.e.,  to  tilt  it  into  a/more 
6.  horizontal  position.     The  abdo- 

minal muscles  pull  its  ^anterior 
margin  upward  and  forward,  the 
glutei  and  hamstring  muscles  pull  its 
posterior  portion  downward.  The 
resulting  movement  involves  exten- 
sion in  the  hip  joint,  and  straight- 
ening of  the  lumbar  flpe.  By  this 
muscular  effort  the  pelvis  is  also  dis- 
placed forward  sufficiently  to  bring 
the  hip  joint  in  front  of  the  weight 
line.  Gravity  then  aids  in  keeping 
this  joint  in  the  extended  position 
by  acting  against  and  stretching  the 
ilio-femoral  ligament  situated  in  front  of  the  joint.  The  whole 
movement  may  be  termed  flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk,  the 


CORRECTED 

POSITION 


BACK" 


98  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

hip  joint  extension  being  incidental,  due  to  the  relative  fixation 
of  the  lower  end  of  the  femur  in  the  standing  position.  By  this 
movement  of  the  pelvis,  produced  by  concerted  action  of  the 
abdominal  muscles,  the  hip  joint  extensors  and  gravity,  the  exces- 
sive action  of  the  lower  erector  spinae,  instinctively  associated 
with  all  efforts  to  straighten  the  upper  back,  is  balanced  and  its 
effects  neutralized :  marked  hyperextension  in  the  lumbar  spine  is 
prevented,  the  natural  curve  may  even  be  almost  obliterated,  the 
pelvis  is  kept  from  being  displaced  backward  and  its  obliquity 
is  reduced. 

Simple  as  this  muscular  effort  and  redistribution  of  weight 
appear,  they  are  rather  difficult  to  learn  and  to  teach.  What 
usually  happens  at  first  is  that,  as  soon  as  the  lower  back  and 
pelvis  are  brought  into  the  desired  position,  there  is  a  "slump" 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  body,  due  to  a  relaxation  of  all  the 
back  muscles.  It  is  another  example  of  the  difficulty  of  dis- 
sociating the  action  of  the  different  parts  of  complex  neuro- 
muscular  mechanisms,  habitually  working  together  as  units,  of 
inhibiting  the  action  of  some  parts,  while  others  remain  in  strong 
contraction,  of  adjusting  and  harmonizing  the  action  of  the  latter 
to  the  partly  antagonistic  action  of  other  forces  in  order  to  obtain 
new  combinations  of  movements  or  position.  The  opposing 
forces  in  this  case  are  on  one  hand  the  whole  erector  spinae  group 
and  the  posterior  scapular  muscles  working  together  to  produce 
extension  (and  hyperextension)  of  the  trunk  on  the  pelvis  in  a 
general  way,  and  incidentally  leading  to  one  kind  of  pelvic  dis- 
placement ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  hip 
joint  extensors,  striving  to  flex  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk  and  thereby 
producing  the  opposite  kind  of  pelvic  displacement.  The  first 
set  tends  to  bring  the  middle  trunk  region  in  front  of  and  the 
hip  region  behind  the  weight  Iftie;  the  other  set  tends  to  reverse 
this  weight  distribution.  Gravity  aids  whichever  set  obtains  a 
decided  advantage  and  opposes  the  other.  To  the  average  person 
it  seems  at  first  impossible  to  make  both  of  these  efforts  at  the 
same  time  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  straighten  the  whole  spine. 
When  a  small  measure  of  success  is  attained  (with  assistance, 
usually),  the  result  is  absolute  rigidity.  Complete  success  in  har- 
monizing the  two  kinds  of  effort  hinge^on  the  ability  to  relax 
the  lower  erector  spinse  while  keeping  the  upper  part  of  this 
muscle  as  well  as  the  posterior  scapular  muscles  strongly  con- 
tracted. When  this  ability  is  finally  attained  the  characteristic 
rigidity  of  the  position  disappears  to  a  great  extent.  For  then 
the  action  of  the  glutei  and  hamstring  muscles,  which  lock  the  hip 
joint,  may  be  largely  dispensed  with,  gravity  being  sufficient  to 
keep  this  joint  in  extension.  The  abdominal  muscles,  however, 
must  remain  contracted  to  neutralize  the  partial  contraction  of 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  99 

the  lower  erector  spinae  which  is  rarely  entirely  eliminated,  or  at 
any  rate  to  guard  the  lumbar  spine  against  the  effect  of  sudden 
contraction  of  this  muscle.  Such  is  apt  to  occur  at  any  moment, 
induced  by  a  change  of  position  higher  up,  e.g.,  a  backward  move- 
ment of  the  arms  or  head. 

There  need  be  no  fear  of  excessive  contraction  of  the  abdomi- 
nal muscles  on  account  of  the  tendency  this  would  have  to  depress 
the  chest.  If  the  upper  erector  spinse,  the  scapular  depressors  and 
other  muscles  of  forced  chest  expansion  remain  as  active  as  they 
should,  this  does  not  occur.  Any  excess  of  contraction  of  the 
abdominal  muscles  beyond  what  is  needed  to  keep  the  lumbar 
spine  straight  will  then  only  lead  to  a  retraction  of  the  abdomen. 
This,  to  be  sure,  interferes  with  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm,  but 
as  that  in  turn  compels  upper  and  lateral  costal  breathing,  some- 
thing which  most  people  need  to  cultivate,  it  may  be  considered 
a  gain  rather  than  otherwise. 

When  the  habitual  standing  position  of  an  individual  cor- 
responds to  the  type  described  in  Section  2,  with  the  hips  too 
far  forward,  upper  spinal  curve  too  long  and  lower  back  too 
straight,  excessive  lumbar  hyperextension  is  not  so  apt  to  occur 
when  efforts  are  made  to  straighten  the  upper  back.  In  such 
individuals  it  is  of  advantage  to  induce  contraction  of  the  whole 
erector  spinae  group,  and  the  resulting  moderate  increase  of 
hyperextension  in  the  lower  back,  greater  pelvic  obliquity  and 
slight  backward  displacement  of  the  hips  represent  more  favor- 
able weight  distribution  and  are  desirable  features  from  an 
aesthetic,  postural  and  physiological  standpoint.  But  even  here 
the  abdominal  muscles  should  be  moderately  contracted  to  guard 
against  excessive  action  of  the  lower  erector  spinae. 

The  muscular  efforts  demanded  in  the  gymnastic  fundamental 
standing  position  and  the  postural  relations,  both  in  the  upper 
and  lower  part  of  the  body,  which  result  when  these  efforts  are 
properly  coordinated,  are  of  a  character  to  oppose  most  directly 
and  effectively  the  unfavorable  influences  of  daily  life,  and  par- 
ticularly those  influences  associated  with  sedentary  habits.  But 
aside  from  direct  postural  and  physiological  effects,  the  repeated 
and  increasingly  successful  attempts  to  assume  this  position  and 
to  maintain  it  for  longer  and  longer  periods  of  time  and  under 
varying  conditions,  are  bound  to  leave  their  impress  on  the  central 
nervous  system.  They  train  the  posture  sense,  improve  the  habits 
of  weight  distribution,  increase  the  power  to  inhibit  unnecessary 
or  excessive  muscular  action  and  so  conduce  to  ease  of  bearing 
and  economy  of  effort.  All  these  are  essential  elements  in  that 
subjective  control  which  determines  quality  and  efficiency  of 
bodily  action.  All  represent  educational  value  as  truly  as  the 
training  of  habits  of  logical  thinking  and  effective  expression  of 


100  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

thought,  or  of  that  uprightness  of  conduct  which  should  underlie 
all  actions  and  relations  in  life. 


B.       FOOT   PLACINGS  AND   KNEE   BENDINGS. 

7.  Alternate  foot  placing  sideways.    A  movement  of  one  foot 
at  a  time  directly  in  the  lateral  plane,  about  two  foot  lengths, 
weight  distributed  equally  on  both  feet,  and  then  return  to  the 
fundamental  position.    The  joint  mechanism  is  simple:  abduction 
in  both  hip  joints,  starting  an  instant  sooner  on  the  "moving" 
(left)  side  than  on  the  "supporting"  side. 

The  principal  muscular  action  is  equally  simple.  The  left 
femur  is  moved  by  its  abductors,  tensor  fasciae  latae  and  glutei, 
while  gravity  (the  body  falls  to  the  left  as  soon  as  the  left  foot 
is  lifted),  aided  by  the  right  tensor  fasciae  latae  and  glutei,  pro- 
duces the  abduction  in  the  right  hip  joint.  The  right  hamstring 
muscles  also  contract  to  steady  the  pelvis  on  the  right  femur 
during  the  brief  period  of  support  on  the  right  foot.  The  abdomi- 
nal muscles  and  lower  erector  spinae  on  the  left  side  contract  at 
the  beginning  of  the  movement,  those  on  the  right  side  at  the 
end — respectively  starting  and  checking  the  bodily  momentum. 

The  return  movement  is  started  by  a  quick  extension  in  the  left 
ankle  which,  with  the  contraction  of  the  right  abdominal  muscles 
and  lower  erector  spinae,  gives  the  body  momentum  to  the  right. 
This  is  sufficient  to  bring  the  right  hip  joint  to  the  fundamental, 
adducted  position,  but  the  right  adductors  also  help,  especially 
if  the  movement  is  quick.  The  left  femur  is  brought  to  the 
fundamental  position  by  gravity,  aided  more*  or  less  by  the  left 
adductors,  according  to  the  speed  of  the  movement.  The  right 
hip  joint  extensors  are  again  active,  as  in  the  first  part  of  the 
movement. 

8.  Alternate  foot  placing  forward.     One  foot  at  a  time  is 
moved  straight  ahead  about  two  foot  lengths,  is  firmly  planted 
and  receives  half  of  the  body  weight. 

The  joint  mechanism  consists  principally  of:  (1)  flexion  with 
slight  rotation  outward  and  abduction  in  the  hip  joint  of  the 
advancing  side  (left  as  usual)  ;  (2)  a  corresponding  amount  of 
rotation  inward  and  abduction  in  the  hip  joint  of  the  supporting 
side  (right)  ;  (3)  a  displacement  of  the  pelvis — tilting  forward 
(increased  obliquity)  and  usually  a  little  rotation  to  the  right,  that 
is,  the  left  side  of  the  pelvis  moves  forward,  the  right  backward ; 
(4)  compensatory  changes  in  the  spine — hyperextension  and 
rotation  to  left.  The  displacement  of  .the  pelvis  with  accompany- 
ing spinal  adjustments  takes  the  place  of  hyperextension  in  the 
right  hip  joint,  and  without  them  the  right  leg  could  not  be 
placed  (with  straight  knee)  as  far  behind  the  erect  trunk  as  the 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HtP  REGION  ''  16l 

left  is  moved  in  front  of  it.  When  great  care  is  exercised  the 
only  pelvic  displacement  is  a  tilting  forward.  Then  the  slight 
rotation  and  abduction  in  the  hip  joints,  as  well  as  the  spinal 
rotation,  are  also  absent.  Efforts  should  be  made  to  approach 
this  as  nearly  as  possible.  (5)  There  is  a  slight,  momentary 
flexion  in  the  left  knee  joint  as  the  foot  is  advanced. 

The  principal  active  muscles  are:  (1)  The  left  hip  joint 
flexors  and  the  abdominal  muscles.  The  latter,  with  the  right 
anterior  lower  leg  muscles,  give  the  body  the  initial  impulse  for- 
ward. Gravity  does  the  rest.  The  left  tensor  fasciae  latae  also 
contracts,  assisting  the  flexors  and  producing  the  slight  amount 
of  abduction  that  may  occur.  (2)  The  lower  erector  spinae  on 
both  sides  (left  more  than  the  right)  contracts  sharply  just  as 
the  left  foot  strikes  the  ground,  checking  the  forward  momentum 
of  the  trunk.  (3)  The  right  tensor  fasciae  latae,  glutei  and 
hamstring  muscles  keep  the  right  hip  joint  locked  in  extension 
during  the  progress  of  the  movement.  The  two  former  also 
resist  the  tendency  to  hyperadduction  in  the  right  hip  joint — a 
swaying  to  the  right  of  the  pelvis  and  a  "settling"  on  the  right 
hip— which  always  occurs  when  the  left  foot  leaves  the  ground. 
Besides,  they  produce  the  slight  abduction  and  rotation  inward 
in  the  right  hip  joint  which  may  occur.  (4)  The  right  quadri- 
ceps extensor  is  active,  opposing  the  tendency  of  the  right  knee 
to  bend.  The  left  quadriceps  contracts  just  before  the  left  foot 
strikes  the  floor. 

The  return  movement  is  started  by  a  quick  extension  in  the 
left  ankle  and  by  contraction  of  the  lower  erector  spinae  on  both 
sides,  the  right  more  than  the  left.  The  left  hip  joint  extensors, 
with  gravity,  bring  the  left  femur  back  to  the  fundamental 
position. 

In  oblique  foot  platings  the  features  of  both  the  forward  and 
lateral  movements  are  present,  but  are  less  pronounced  than  in 
either  of  these. 

Alternate  foot  placings  in  different  directions,  while  not  rep- 
resenting a  great  amount  of  general  muscular  work  or  very 
powerful  contraction  of  any  particular  group,  are  valuable  for 
the  training  they  give  in  quick  changes  of  weight  distribution, 
adjustment  and  balance;  in  the  control  of  body  momentum;  and 
in  the  localization  of  movement  of  the  lower  extremity  as  much 
as  possible  to  the  hip  joint  without  too  great  displacement  of 
the  pelvis  and  trunk.  When  used  in  alternation  with  rhythmical 
trunk  movements  they  help  to  keep  the  latter  from  becoming 
"oscillatory,"  indefinite,  incomplete  and  slovenly,  by  marking  the 
beginning  and  end  of  each  movement.  They  also,  when  used 
in  this  way,  contribute  to  the  complexity,  variety  or  difficulty  of 
an  exercise. 


102  '  'GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

9.  Standing  knee  bending.    Of  the  various  movements  which 
may  be  included  under  this  term  the  type  in  which  the  knees  move 
sideways  as  far  as  possible  and  the  heels  leave  the  ground  will 
be  assumed.     This  consists  of  flexion  and  abduction  with  some 
rotation  outward  in  the  hip  joint  (both  sides),  flexion  in  the  knee 
and  ankle  joints,  varying  in  degree  according  to  whether  the  knee 
bending  is  the  customary  right  angle  bend  or  more  (deep  knee 
bending),  and,  in  the  ankle,  with  the  height  of  the  heel  from  the 
floor. 

Gravity  is  the  motor  force  and  the  active  muscles  are  the  hip 
joint  extensors  and  abductors — the  hamstring  muscles,  glutei  and 
tensor  fasciae  latae;  the  quadriceps  extensor  of  the  knee;  the 
gastrocnemius,  soleus  and  other  extensors  of  the  ankle.  The 
action  of  these  is  "eccentric,"  resisting  gravity  and  determining 
the  speed  of  the  movement.  The  hip  joint  abductors  are  responsi- 
ble for  the  "spreading"  of  the  knees.  The  return  movement 
is  accomplished  by  "concentric"  action,  that  is,  shortening  of 
the  same  muscles.  The  trunk  is  kept  balanced  in  the  upright 
position  throughout  the  movement  by  the  contraction  of  the 
erector-  spinae  against  the  moderate  resistance  of  the  abdominal 
muscles. 

The  exercise  demands  a  considerable  amount  of  work  on  the 
part  of  the  largest  muscles  in  the  body,  and  when  the  knee  bend- 
ing is  complete  these  muscles  work  not  only  against  a  greater 
weight  leverage,  but  also  through  their  whole  range.  Being  well 
suited  to  rhythmical  repetition  it  furnishes  the  most  favorable 
conditions  for  the  increase  in  size  and  strength  of  all  those  mus- 
cles. It  also  offers  fairly  great  difficulty  in  peeping  the  balance, 
especially  in  the  beginning.  This  means  a  lively  interplay  of 
all  the  lower  trunk  muscles,  which  adds  appreciably  to  the  total 
amount  of  work,  besides  being  excellent  training  in  coordination. 
The  erect  vertical  position  of  the  trunk  is  favored  by  the  abduc- 
x>n  in  the  hip  joint. 

10.  Side  lunge.    The  movement  is  directly  to  the  side,  about 
three  foot  lengths,  with  the  knee  bent  to  nearly  right  angle  and 
pressed  sideways  as  far  as  possible,  the  trunk  erect  and  vertical, 
the  shoulders  level  and  "square"  to  the  front.    The  final  position 
may  also  be  reached  by  keeping  the  moving  leg  straight  and 
bending  the  knee  of  the  stationary  leg. 

Assuming  the  first  of  the  above  definitions,  the  movement 
consists  of  flexion,  ajiduction  and  rotation  outward  in  the  hip 
joint,  flexion  in.,  the  knee'  and  ankle  joints  of  the  moving  leg 
(right)  ;  abduction  (and  extension)  in  the  hip  joint,  extension  in 
the  knee  and  ankle  joint  of  the  stationary  leg  (left).  When 
properly  done  there  is  little  or  no  displacement  of  the  pelvis,  but 
in  most  cases  a  slight  rotation  to  left  and  a  little  tilting  to  the  same 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION 


103 


side  are  apt  to  occur, 
with  corresponding 
twist  and  bend  of  the 
spine  to  right  (con- 
vexity to  left). 

The  active  muscles 
are,  on  the  right 
side:  at  first,  the  hip 
joint  flexors  and  ab- 
ductors; then,  as  the 
right  foot  strikes  the 
floor,  the  hip,  knee 
and  ankle  joint  ex- 
tensors contract,  re- 
sisting further  flex- 
ion in  these  joints  by 
gravity.  The  hip 
joint  abductors  con- 
tinue active  through- 
out. On  the  left  side 
the  hip  joint  abduc- 
tors help  to  give  the 
body  the  initial  im- 
petus to  the  left. 
After  the  first  mo- 
ment, however,  grav- 
ity is  the  chief  motor 

force,  while  the  left  hip  joint -adductors  and  the  inverters  of  the 
left  foot  contract  to  keep  this  foot  in  firm  contact  with  the  floor 
as  the  right  foot  receives  the  greater  part  of  the  body  weight. 
The  right  abdominal  muscles  and  erector  spinae  also  contract  at 
the  beginning,  while  the  same  muscles  on  the  left  side  check  the 
momentum  of  the  body  at  the  completion  of  the  movement. 

The  return  is  accomplished  by  the  quick  contraction  of  the  right 
hip,  knee  and  ankle  joint  extensors,  the  left  hip  joint  adductors, 
the  left  erector  spinse  and  abdominal  muscles. 


FIGURE  33 
SIDE  LUNGE 


C.       CHARGES  AND  BACK  EXERCISES. 


11.  Standing  forward  charge.  One  foot  is  advanced  straight 
ahead  about  three  foot  lengths,  toe  turned  forward,  knee  bent 
to  nearly  right  angle.  The  other  foot  is  either  kept  firm  or 
allowed  to  turn  on  the  ball  until  it  is  approximately  at  right  angles 
to  the  advanced  foot,  then  held  in  firm  contact  with  the  floor. 
The  trunk  is  kept  straight  and  inclined  45°,  in  line  with  the  rear 


104 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


leg.  The  plane  of  the  shoulders  remains  as  in  the  fundamental 
standing  position — "square"  to  the  front.  The  movement,  when 
properly  executed  according  to  this  definition,  and  with  the  left 
foot  advanced,  consists  of:  (1)  flexion  and  a  little  abduction  in 
the  left  hip  joint;  (2)  flexion  in  the  left  knee  and  ankle  joints; 
(3)  (extension)  rotation  outward  and  slight  abduction  in  the 
right  hip  joint;  (4)  rotation  and  also  a  little  tilting  to  right  of  the 
pelvis;  (5)  compensatory  twist  of  the  spine  to  left  with  a  slight 
lateral  bend  to  the  same  side  (convexity  to  right). 


FIGURE  34 
FORWARD  CHARGE 


The  muscular  action  is  very  complex,  especially  if  the  arms 
are  moved  at  the  same  time,  as  is  usually  the  case.  Only  the 
merest  outline  of  the  action  of  the  principal  muscles  will  be 
attempted. 

(1)  When  the  left  foot  is  lifted  the  body  is  allowed  to  fall 
forward,  being  started  in  this  direction  by  the  right  anterior  leg 
and  abdominal  muscles.  The  left  hip  joint  flexors — psoas,  iliacus, 
rectus  femoris,  etc. — raise  the  left  femur ;  the  left  knee  is  flexed 
by  gravity,  the  quadriceps  being  relaxed  at  this  stage.  (2)  When 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  105 

the  foot  strikes  the  ground  the  left  hip,  knee  and  ankle  joint 
extensors  contract  to  check  the  flexion  in  these  joints.  (3)  The 
right  hip  and  knee  joints  tend  to  flex  as  the  left  foot  is  advanced, 
necessitating  moderately  strong  contraction  of  the  right  glutei, 
hamstring  muscles  and  quadriceps.  The  swinging  forward  of 
the  right  heel  means  rotation  outward  in  the  right  hip  joint, 
which  is  a  passive  movement  produced  by  the  momentum  of  the 
trunk.  It  is  resisted  and  finally  checked  by  the  inward  rotators — 
tensor  fasciae  latae,  anterior  portions  of  gluteus  medius  and 
gluteus  minimus.  (4)  The  right  foot  is  kept  firmly  on  the  floor 
by  the  right  hip  joint  adductors  and  by  the  muscles  which  invert 
the  foot — principally  tibialis  anticus  and  posticus.  (5)  The 
whole  erector  spinae  group  on  each  side  contracts  strongly  to 
keep  the  spine  from  being  flexed  by  gravity  acting  with  increasing 
leverage  as  the  body  is  inclined.  Their  action  is  suddenly 
increased  when  the  left  foot  strikes  the  floor,  in  order  to  check 
the  forward  momentum  of  the  trunk.  (6)  The  slight  bend  and 
considerable  twist  to  the  left  of  the  spine,  necessary  to  compensate 
for  the  right  rotation  and  inclination  of  the  pelvis,  are  produced 
by  the  stronger  contraction  of  the  left  back  and  abdominal  mus- 
cles and  those  portions  of  each  which  rotate  the  trunk  to  the  left — 
left  serratus  posticus  inferior  and  lower  erector  spinae;  right 
serratus  posticus  superior,  semispinales  dorsi,  multifidus  and 
rotatores  spinae,  levatores  costarum,  right  external  and  left  inter- 
nal oblique  abdominal  muscles. 

The  most  common  faulty  tendencies  to  be  resisted  in  this  exer- 
cise are:  (1)  Flexion  in  the  right  hip  and  knee  joints  and  in 
the  whole  back  due  to  insufficient  contraction  of  the  respective 
extensors.  (2)  Raising  the  heel  or  outer  border  of  the  right  foot. 
(3)  Excessive  contraction  of  the  lower  erector  spinae  occurring 
while  the  left  foot  is  advancing,  leading  to  hyperextension  in 
the  lower  back  and  a  vertical  position  (or  even  a  backward 
inclination)  of  the  upper  trunk.  This  really  reduces  the  work 
as  well  as  the  difficulty  of  the  exercise.  (4)  Failure  to  keep  the 
shoulders  "square"  to  the  front,  allowing  them  to  rotate  to  the 
right  so  that  their  plane  remains  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the 
pelvis.  This  is  due  to  lack  of  effort  or  coordination  in  making 
the  necessary  compensatory  twisting  of  the  trunk  to  left.  (5) 
Inclination  to  left  or  right  of  the  shoulders,  associated  with 
excessive  displacements  of  the  pelvis. 

12.  Standing  oblique  charge.  Starting  with  the  feet  at  right 
angles,  charge  diagonally — in  the  direction  the  toe  points — three 
foot  lengths;  knee  of  advanced  leg  bent  to  right  angle,  rear  leg 
straight,  rear  foot  firmly  on  floor;  trunk  inclined  about  45°,  in 
line  with  the  rear  leg;  shoulders  "square"  to  the  front  and  bear- 
ing the  same  relation  to  the  trunk  as  in  the  standing  position 


106 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


(therefore  inclined  in  the 
same  proportion  as  the 
trunk). 

The  joint  mechanism  dif- 
fers but  slightly  from  that 
of  the  forward  charge. 
There  is  moderate  abduction 
and  slight  rotation  outward 
in  both  hip  joints;  the  pelvic 
rotation  and  lateral  tilting 
and  the  compensatory  twist 
and  bend  in  the  spine  are  of 
the  same  kind  as  in  the  for- 
ward charge,  but  less  pro- 
nounced. 

The  muscular  mechanism 
is  also  similar  to  that  of  the 
forward  charge,  the  chief 
difference  being  in  the 
stronger  action  of  the  hip 
joint  abductors  of  the  ad- 
vancing leg  and  the  less 
localized  action  of  the  rota- 
tors of  the  trunk.  The 
erector  spinae  and  abdom- 
inal muscles  on  the  side 

opposite  to  the  charge  (the  upper  side)  are  most  active  in  sus- 
taining the  weight  of  the  trunk  and  in  checking  the  momentum, 
which  is  as  much  in  a  lateral  as  in  a  forward  direction. 

The  common  faults  of  the  final  position  are:  (1)  insufficient 
abduction  in  the  hip  joint  of  the  advancing  side,  shown  by  the 
forward  position  of  the  knee;  (2)  flexion  in  the  hip  joint  of  the 
rear  leg;  (3)  excessive  displacements  of  the  pelvis;  (4)  hyper- 
extension  and  excessive  lateral  bends  or  twists  (or  both)  in  the 
spine. 

13.  The  toe-support  charge  position  is  similar  to  the  position 
reached  by  the  forward  charge,  but  instead  of  one  foot  (left) 
being  moved  forward,  the  other  (right)  is  moved  backward  with 
the  ankle  extended  and  only  the  toe  touching  the  floor  (lightly). 
The  stationary  forward  leg  supports  practically  the  whole  body 
weight,  which  is  not  displaced  in  any  but  su  downward  direction. 
The  joint  mechanism  differs  from  that  of  the  forward  charge 
(aside  from  the  ankle  joint  extension)  in  the  absence  of  rotation 
outward  in  the  hip  joint  of  the  rear  leg.  This  means  less  pelvic 
rotation  and  inclination  to  right  with  correspondingly  diminished 
spinal  twist  and  bend  to  left. 


FIGURE  35 
OBLIQUE  CHARGE 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  107 

The  same  muscles  are  active  as  in  the  forward  charge,  but  the 
sequence  and  degree  of  their  action  are  different.  The  immediate 
and  continued  strong  comVaction  of  the  erector  spinae  group  on 
both  sides,  and  of  the  right  hip  and  knee  extensors  are  notable 
features.  The  left  hip,  knee  and  ankle  joint  extensors  also  work 
harder  than  in  the  forward  charge,  having  to  sustain  the  whole 
body  weight  throughout. 


FIGURE  36 
TOE-SUPPORT  CHARGE  POSITION 

Owing  to  the  small  amount  of  support  afforded  by  the  rear 
foot  the  equilibrium  in  this  position  is  more  unstable  than  in  the 
forward  or  the  oblique  charge.  The  fact  that  the  body  weight  is 
not  displaced  in  any  direction  (except  downward)  makes  greater 
speed  possible  in  this  movement.  Thus,  while  the  joint  and  mus- 
cular mechanism  is  much  the  same  as  in  the  others,  and  especially 
the  forward  charge,  the  toe- support  charge  position  and  the 
movement  by  which  it  is  reached  give  even  greater  opportunity 
than  the  /ormer  for  the  training  of  balance,  for  quick,  powerful 
and  delicately  adjusted  action  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  lower 
trunk  and  extremity. 


108  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

14.  The    horizontal   position    on    one   foot    (horizontal   half 
standing  position).     Starting  from  the  toe-support  charge  posi- 
tion, the  rear  leg  is  raised  and  the  trunk  inclined  forward  cor- 
respondingly, until  the  line  formed  by  both  is  horizontal. 

The  movement  consists  of  additional  flexion  in  the  hip  joint 
(and  to  a  much  less  extent  in  the  knee  and  ankle  joints)  of  the 
supporting  leg.  It  is  produced  chiefly  by  gravity,  aided  in  the 
beginning  by  the  anterior  lower  leg  muscles  (ankle  joint  flexors) 
and  the  hip  joint  flexors  of  the  supporting  side,  the  extensors  of 
these  joints  resisting  but  being  allowed  to  yield  (carefully).  The 
hip  joints  extensors  of  the  free  leg  as  well  as  the  whole  erector 
spinae  on  both  sides,  and  especially  the  lower  portion,  contract 
with  utmost  intensity  to  keep  the  rear  leg  and  trunk  in  line  in 
the  horizontal  position.  The  displacements  of  pelvis  and  spine 
are  the  same  as  in  the  toe-support  charge  position,  but  less  pro- 
nounced. The  action  of  the  back  muscles  appears  to  be  more 
equal  on  the  two  sides. 

The  powerful  contraction  of  the  lower  erector  spinae  is  apt  to 
cause  excessive  hyperextension  in  the  lumbar  region,  which  is 
almost  impossible  to  eliminate.  The  great  difficulty  in  keeping 
the  balance  involves  constant  and  quick  yieldings  and  recoveries 
on  the  part  of  all  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  lower  extremity, 
and  especially  of  the  supporting  leg.  The  muscular  work  as  well 
as  the  coordination  required  by  the  exercise  is  therefore  very 
considerable,  and  the  ability  to  do  it  well  represents  a  good  deal 
of  strength  and  a  high  degree  of  motor  control. 

15.  Forward  bending  of  trunk  (Fig.  8),  already  described,  is 
almost  entirely  flexion  at  the  hips;  the  thoracic  spine  is  kept 
extended,  the  lumbar  spine  is  straightened.     The  movement  is 
produced  by  gravity,  and  the  active  muscles  are  the  hip  joint 
extensors,  the  whole  erector  spinae  group  and  the  posterior  scapu- 
lar muscles.    The  action  of  the  hip  joint  extensors  and  the  lower 
erector  spinae  is  "eccentric,"  while  the  upper  erector  spinae  and 
the  scapular  muscles  remain  completely  contracted. 

In  forzvard-downward  bending  ( Fig.  9 ) ,  the  flexion  in  the  hip 
joints  and  lumbar  spine  proceeds  as  far  as  the  extensibility  of  the 
hamstring  muscles  and  lower  erector  spinae  permits.  But  the 
upper  erector  spinae  and  posterior  scapular  muscles  should  not 
be  allowed  to  yield. 

The  return  to  the  fundamental  position  is  accomplished  by  the 
"concentric"  contraction  of  the  same  muscles. 

The  higher  the  arms  are  held  in  these  movements  the  greater  is 
the  weight  leverage  against  which  the  back  muscles  have  to  work. 
This  leverage  is  also  increased  in  proportion  to  the  inclination  of 
the  trunk,  the  horizontal  position  representing  the  maximum. 
The  greater  weight  leverage,  with  the  added  work  of  the  scap- 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION 


109 


ular  muscles,  increases  not  only  the  total  amount  of  muscular 
work  but  also  the  difficulty  of  this  type  of  exercise.  The  atten- 
tion is  more  divided  and  the  extra  effort  required  to  keep  the 
arms  high  and  well  back  induces  an  even  stronger  tendency  than 
usual  to  contract  the  erector  spinae  group  as  a  whole.  Or,  to  put 
it  the  other  way,  the  higher  the  arms  are  held  and  the  more  the 
trunk  is  inclined,  the  more  difficult  it  is  to  allow  the  lower  erector 
spinae  to  yield  without  relaxing  the  upper  portion  of  this  group 
as  well  as  the  posterior  scapular  muscles.  When  correctly  done 
this  type  of  exercise  is  therefore  very  valuable  for  the  training  it 
gives  in  localized  contraction  of  the  upper  back  muscles,  a  most 
important  element  in  posture  education. 


FIGURE  37 
PRONE  LYING  POSITION 


16.  The  prone  lying  position.  The  body  is  approximately 
horizontal,  supported  under  the  thighs  by  a  bench  or  stool;  the 
feet  are  fixed  by  another  person,  by  the  stall  bars,  straps  or  other 
support. 

Gravity,  acting  with  the  greatest  possible  leverage,  tends  to 
flex  the  hip  joints  and  spine  and  to  abduct  the  scapulae;  the 
working  muscles  are  therefore  the  hip  joint  extensors  and  all  the 
back  muscles,  including  the  scapular  adductors  and  posterior 
depressors.  All  contract  with  utmost  vigor,  the  action  of  the 
lower  erector  spinse  being  particularly  marked  and  leading  to 
considerable  lumbar  hyperextension,  which  in  this  case  is  difficult 
to  avoid. 

In  forward  bending  from  this  position  the  hip  joint  extensors 
and  lower  erector  spinae  yield  to  gravity,  but  the  upper  back  and 
posterior  scapular  (as  well  as  neck)  muscles  remain  contracted, 


110  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

thereby  limiting  the  movement  to  flexion  in  the  hip  joints  and 
lumbar  spine.  In  returning  to  the  starting  position  the  muscles 
which  yielded  shorten  again  until  the  extension  at  the  hip  is 
complete. 

The  exercise  represents  the  most  powerful  .type  of  back  move- 
ments. Because  of  the  fixation  of  the  legs  the  localization  of  the 
work  to  the  posterior  muscles  is  more  absolute  and  the  possi- 
bilities for  increasing  the  resistance  they  have  to  overcome  are 
greater  than  in  any  other  type  of  back  exercises.  The  forcible 
contraction  of  the  back  muscles  tends  to  straighten  minor  lateral 


FIGURE  38 
FORWARD  BENDING  FROM  PRONE  LYING^  POSITION 

r 

deviations  of  the  spine  at  the  time,  and  by  increasing  the  tone  of 
the  muscles  to  insure  greater  stability  to  the  spinal  column.  For 
these  reasons  the  exercise  is  used  in  connection  with  the  treat- 
ment of  scoliosis.  The  only  objectionable  feature  is  the  excessive 
lumbar  hyperextension,  but  this  may  be  somewhat  obviated  by 
refraining  from  raising  the  trunk  above  the  horizontal  position 
(or  rather  beyond  the  point  where  it  is  in  line  with  the  legs). 

17.  Standing  alternate  leg  raising  backward.  The  straight 
leg  is  displaced  directly  backward  as  far  as  possible  without 
inclining  the  trunk  forward.  When  the  left  leg  is  raised  the 
movement  takes  place  principally  in  the  right  hip  joint.  (1)  As 
the  fundamental  position  implies  complete  extension  of  the  hip 
joint,  and  as  the  ilio- femoral  ligament  prevents  absolutely  any 
hyperextension,  the  leg  can  move  backward  only  by  a  tilting  for- 
ward of  the  pelvis  (increasing  its  obliquity)  combined  with  a  tilt- 
ing to  right  and  a  rotation  to  left  on  the  right  femur,  in  such  a 
way  that  the  left  hip  is  moved  backward  and  upward.  The  total 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  111 

pelvic  displacement  may  then  be  described  as  flexion,  rotation  out- 
ward and  abduction  in  the  right  hip  joint,  the  right  femur  being 
the  fixed  segment.  (2)  At  the  same  time  compensatory  changes 
occur  in  the  spine  in  order  to  maintain  the  erect  fundamental 
position  of  the  head,  chest,  shoulders  and  upper  back.  The  most 
conspicuous  of  these  is  the  lumbar  hyperextension,  compensating 
for  the  forward  tilt  of  the  pelvis  (flexion  in  the  right  hip  joint). 
The  lateral  tilt  of  the  pelvis  (abduction  in  the  right  hip  joint)  is 
balanced  by  a  bend  to  the  left  in  the  lower  spine  (convexity  to 
the  right),  while  the  backward  movement  of  the  left  side  of  the 
pelvis  (rotation  outward  in  the  right  hip  joint)  is  met  by  a 
twist  to  the  right  in  the  whole  spine,  most  pronounced  in  the 
lower  thoracic  region.  (3)  Finally,  the  pelvic  displacement 
necessitates  a  slight  ^abduction  and  some  rotation  inward  in  the 
left  hip  joint,  if -the  left  leg  is  to  move  directly  backward  with 
the  toe  pointed  in  the  same  direction. 

Muscular  mechanism.  (1)  The  left  femur  is  kept  extended 
(against  the  tendency  of  gravity  to  flex  it),  is  abducted  and 
rotated  inward  by  the  left  hamstring  muscles,  glutei  and  tensor 
fasciae  latae.  (2)  The  pelvic  displacement,  i.e.,  the  flexion, 
abduction,  and  rotation  outward  in  the  right  hip  joint,  is  in  part 
produced  by  the  right  psoas  and  iliacus,  sartorius,  rectus  femoris, 
pectineus,  etc.,  the  right  tensor  fasciae  latae  and  glutei ;  in  part 
by  the  erector  spinae  and  abdominal  muscles,  those  on  the  left 
side  predominating.  (3)  The  last  two  groups  are  of  course 
also  responsible  for  the  lateral  bend  of  the  spine,  while  the 
extreme  lumbar  hyperextension  is  brought  about  by  contraction 
of  the  lower  erector  spinae  on  both  sides.  (4)  The  rotation  of 
the  pelvis  to  the  left  and  backward — equivalent  to  trunk  twist 
to  right — involves  also  the  rotators  of  the  trunk  to  right,  y 
the  right  serratus  posticus  inferior,  the  right  lower  erector  spinae 
and  the  right  internal  oblique  abdominal  muscle;  the  left  semi- 
spinales  dorsi,  multifidus  spinae,  rotatores  spinae,  levatores  cos- 
tarum  and  the  left  external  oblique  abdominal  muscle.  (5)  In 
keeping  the  pelvis  steady  on  the  right  femur  there  is  constant 
interplay  between  the  right  hip  joint  abductors  and  adductors, 
flexors  and  extensors,  in  addition  to  the  work  many  of  these  have 
to  do  as  motor  muscles.  The  right  lower  leg  and  foot  muscles 
are  similarly  active. 

The  movement  and  the  position  reached  by  it  are  used  chiefly 
as  a  balance  exercise  and  undeniably  answer  this  purpose  very 
well.  The  general  arching  of  the  back  is  also  apt  to  induce  a 
forced  erect  posture  in  the  upper  body  with  good  chest  expansion, 
but  the  excessive  lumbar  hyperextension  which  is  the  main 
feature  of  this  arching  makes  its  value  as  a  general  class  exercise 
at  least  questionable. 


112 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


D.       ABDOMINAL    EXERCISES. 


18.  Standing  alternate  leg  flinging  forward.  As  the  name 
implies,  first  one  leg  then  the  other  is  moved  quickly  forward- 
upward  as  high  as  possible  and  with  straight  knee.  No  position 
is  held  at  the  end  of  the  upward  swing,  the  recoil  marking  the 

beginning  of  the  return 
movement.  At  the  changes 
from  one  leg  to  the  other, 
however,  the  fundamental 
position  is  held  for  a  mo- 
ment. The  head  and  upper 
back  should  not  be  allowed 
to  bend  forward  as  the  leg 
rises,  and  the  tendency  to 
bend  the  knee  of  the  sup- 
porting leg  should  be  re- 
sisted. The  left  leg  will  be 
assumed  to  be  the  moving 
leg. 

The  joint  mechanism  of 
this  movement  involves  (1) 
as  much  flexion  in  the  left 
hip  joint  as  the  length  and 
elasticity  of  the  left  ham- 
string muscles  permit;  (2) 
flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the 
trunk,  that  is,  a  tilting  of 
the  pelvis  to  a  more  hori- 
zontal position.  This  can 
be  done  only  by  a  straight- 
ening of  the  lumbar  spine 
and  by  compensatory  move- 
ments in  the  right  hip  and 

knee  joints;  (3)  if  the  extension  in  both  hip  joints  is  complete  at 
the  outset,  there  can  be  no  further  movement  in  the  right  joint 
to  allow  the  flexion  of  the  pelvis.  If  it  is  not,  the  pelvis  moves 
on  the  right  femur  until  the  ilio-femoral  ligament  is  tense  and  the 
extension  in  the  right  hip  joint  is  complete.  Any  further  flexion 
of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk  necessitates  flexion  in  the  right  knee 
joint,  and  this  nearly  always  occurs  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  if 
the  leg  flinging  is  vigorous  enough  to  bring  the  foot  above  waist 
level.  (4)  As  soon  as  the  left  foot  leaves  the  ground  the  weight 
which  it  supported  must  be  transferred  to  the  right  foot.  This 
is  done  by  a  slight  shifting  of  the  pelvis  to  the  right,  and  involves 


FIGURE  39.    LEG  FLINGING  FORWARD 
At  the  end  of  the  up-swing  the  leg  should  be 
as  much  above  the  level  of  the  hip  as  it  is 
below  in  the  figure. 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  113 

a  corresponding  amount  of  adduction  or  rather  hyperadduction 
in  the  right  hip  joint. 

The  muscles  active  in  the  movement  are  (1)  the  left  hip  joint 
flexors,  principally  the  psoas,  iliacus  and  rectus  femoris;  (2)  the 
abdominal  muscles.  These  always  contract  whenever  the  hip 
joint  flexors,  even  on  one  side,  are  active.  The  functional  asso- 
ciation between  the  two  sets  is  analogous  to  that  between  the 
deltoid  and  supraspinatus  on  one  hand,  the  trapezius  and  ser- 
ratus  magnus  on  the  other.  The  hip  joint  flexors  in  their  efforts 
to  draw  the  femur  forward-upward  also  tend  to  tip  the  pelvis 
forward,  that  is,  to  increase  its  obliquity.  The  abdominal  muscles 
do  just  the  opposite,  viz.,  flex  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk,  making  its 
plane  approach  nearer  the  horizontal.  They  are  therefore  fixators 
of  the  pelvis  against  the  pull  of  the  hip  joint  flexors.  In  this 
capacity  the  abdominal  muscles  may  be  said  to  do  more  than  their 
duty:  they  pull  the  anterior  margin  of  the  pelvis  upward,  and  so 
increase  the  range  of  movement  of  the  femur  in  an  upward 
direction.  This  tilting  of  the  pelvis  begins  long  before  the  limit 
of  flexion  in  the  hip  joint  has  been  reached.  Another  way  of 
looking  at  it  is  to  consider  the  abdominal  muscles  and  the  hip 
joint  flexors  parts  of  one  system  or  muscular  mechanism  serving 
the  purpose  of  flexing  the  two  segments — pelvis  and  femur — on 
the  trunk  and  always  working  together  in  the  accomplishment  of 
this  purpose.  (3)  In  the  effort  to  flex  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk 
the  abdominal  muscles  are  aided  by  the  hip  joint  extensors — prin- 
cipally the  gluteus  maximus  and  the  hamstring  muscles.  Those 
on  the  right  side  contract  actively,  while  those  on  the  left  side  are 
being  subjected  to  strong  tension,  owing  to  the  flexion  of  the  left 
hip  joint  while  the  left  knee  is  kept  extended,  and  thereby  exert 
a  powerful  pull  on  the  posterior  portions  of  the  pelvis.  When, 
through  the  united  action  of  all,  the  pelvis  has  been  flexed  on 
the  trunk  (and  extended  on  the  right  femur)  until  no  further 
movement  in  the  right  hip  joint  can  take  place  (the  ilio-femoral 
ligament  being  stretched),  continued  action  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  and  hip  joint  extensors,  aided  by  the  momentum  of 
the  left  leg  and  by  gravity,  will  flex  the  right  knee  joint  (the 
quadriceps,  strongly  contracted  from  the  beginning,  has  to  yield 
a  little).  This  allows  a  forward  movement  of  the  right  femur 
and  a  corresponding  amount  of  additional  flexion  of  the  pelvis 
on  the  trunk.  (4)  In  the  slight  movement  of  the  pelvis  to  the 
right  when  the  left  foot  leaves  the  ground  the  abductors  of  the 
right  hip  joint — glutei  and  tensor  fasciae  latae — contract,  but  yield 
to  gravity  until  equilibrium  on  the  right  foot  has  been  established. 
After  that,  they,  as  well  as  the  adductors,  maintain  static  con- 
traction, steadying  the  pelvis  on  the  femur  and  preventing  or 
reducing  lateral  swaying.  The  action  of  the  right  extensors 


114 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


against  the  ilio-femoral  ligament  (and  flexor  muscles),  already 
described  as  aiding  in  the  flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk,  pre- 
vents or  checks  antero-posterior  oscillations. 

The  main  features  of  this  exercise  may  be  summed  up  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Extreme  stretching  of  the  hamstring  muscles  and 
other  structures  on  the  posterior  aspect  of  the  thigh  and  knee  of 
the  moving  side  in  order  to  attain  as  complete  flexion  in  the  hip 
joint  as  possible  with  straight  knee.  (2)  Forced  complete  exten- 
sion in  the  hip  joint  of  the  supporting  side.  (3)  Considerable 
flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk,  associated  with  forced  flexion* 
in  one  hip  joint  and  leading  to  complete  extension  in  the  other. 

(4)  Straightening  and  even  reversal  of  the  lumbar  curve,  occur- 
ring as  an  essential  part  of  flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk. 

(5)  Vigorous  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  always  in- 
duced by  efforts  to  flex  the  hip  joint.     (6)  Prompt,  vigorous  and 
orderly  interplay  of  the  flexors  and  extensors,   abductors  and 
adductors  of  the  hip  joint  on  the  supporting  side  involved  in  the 
redistribution  of  weight  at  the  change  from  one  foot  to  the  other 
and  in  maintaining  the  balance  during  the  progress  of  the  move- 
ment.    (7)  Lastly,  the  yielding  and  stretching  of  the  lower  erec- 
tor spinae,  necessary  in  the  flexion  of  the  lumbar  spine,  while  the 
upper  erector  spinae  and  the  posterior 

scapular  muscles  remain  in  complete 
contraction,  keeping  the  upper  part  of 
the  body  erect  under  conditions  of 
unusual  difficulty. 

19.  Standing  alternate  knee  upward 
bending  is  like  alternate  leg  flinging 
forward  in  all  respects  except  that  the 
knee  on  the  moving  side  is  flexed  at 
the  same  time  and  in  the  same  propor- 
tion as  the  hip  joint  on  that  side.  This 
reduces  the  passive  tension  on  the 
hamstring  muscles  of  that  side  to  a 
minimum  and  so  allows  complete 
flexion  in  the  hip  joint,  limited  only 
by  the  contact  of  the  thigh  with  the 
abdomen.  When  the  movement  is 
done  slowly  and  the  position  is  held 
as  a  balance  exercise,  the  right  angle 
flexion  at  hip  and  knee  is  customary. 
The  main  object  is  then  to  cultivate 

quick  and  orderly  interplay  between  FlGURE  40  ALTERXATE  KxEE 
the  flexors  and  extensors,  abductors  UPWARD  BENDING 

and  adductors  Of  the  hip  joint,  and  Of         At  the  end  of  the  up-strokethe 
,  f      *         1     ^  J      1  1-1  knee    should  be  close  to  the 

the  muscles  of  the  lower  leg  which         chest. 


LOWER  TRUXK  AND  HIP  REGION  115 

steady  the  ankle  joint,  all  on  the  supporting  side,  as  well  as  of  all 
the  lower  trunk  muscles,  in  order  to  maintain  a  steady  balance  on 
one  foot.  But  the  action  oi  the  abdominal  muscles  and  the 
resulting  flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk  through  straightening 
of  the  lumbar  spine  still  remain  prominent  features  of  the 
exercise. 

20.  Knee  upward  bending,  and  leg  raising  from  the  hanging 
position.  When  one  leg  is  moved  at  a  time  the  mechanism  of 
these,  as  regards  the  lower  body,  is  the  same  as  in  the  correspond- 
ing movements  from  the  standing  position.  But  the  hanging 
position  eliminates  the  balance  element,  insures  a  straight  upper 
back,  fixes  the  chest  in  an  expanded  position  and  so  rriakes 
possible  more  energetic  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles  and  hip 
joint  flexors  of  the  moving  side. 

When  both  legs  are  raised  (straight)  the  work  of  the  hip  joint 
flexors  and  abdominal  muscles  is  much  increased  owing  to  the 
greater  weight  leverage  as  well  as  to  the  increased  resistance 
offered  by  the  hamstring  muscles  on  both  sides.  The  range  of 
flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk  is  somewhat  greater  than  when 
one  leg  is  raised,  as  the  limitation  involved  in  keeping  one  hip 
joint  extended  is  absent. 

In  double  knee  upward  bending  the  abdominal  muscles  and 
hip  joint  flexors  have  less  weight  to  lift  and  encounter  less 
resistance  from  the  hamstring  muscles.  Because  of  the  latter, 
greater  flexion  of  the  femur  on  the  pelvis  and  of  the  pelvis  on 
the  trunk  is  possible,  and  the  motor  muscles  are  therefore  able 
to  shorten  more  completely.  This  means  as  complete  flexion  in 
the  lumbar  spine  as  this  region  is  capable  of.  The  hanging 
position  induces  a  fairly  straight  upper  thoracic  spine  and  good 
chest  expansion.  Here,  then,  all  conditions  are  favorable  for 
improving  the  postural  relations  of  the  whole  trunk,  including 
the  shoulder  and  hip  regions.  Most  of  the  muscles  responsible 
for  the  maintenance  of  good  posture  in  the  different  regions  are 
given  opportunity  to  contract  through  their  whole  range  and 
against  a  considerable  resistance.  In  the  case  of  the  scapular 
depressors,  rotators  downward  and  adductors,  while  they  are 
not  shortened  completely,  their  contraction  is  sustained  for  some 
time.  The  antagonistic  structures,  muscular  and  fibrous,  are 
stretched.  The  mobility  in  the  joints  of  the  spine,  chest  and 
shoulder  girdle,  as  well  as  in  the  shoulder  joint  proper,  is  culti- 
vated in  directions  in  which  it  tends  to  become  limited  through 
lack  of  opportunity  or  necessity  for  such  extreme  movements  in 
the  ordinary  activities  of  daily  life.  This  type  of  exercise  is  also 
one  of  the  most  effective  for  increasing  the  strength  and  tone  of 
the  abdominal  muscles,  as  well  as  for  reducing,  or  at  least  retard- 
ing, the  accumulation  of  adipose  tissue  so  frequently  associated 


116 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


with  relaxed  abdominal  walls  in  persons  of  sedentary  habits.  At 
the  same  time  the  abdominal  muscles  work  under  mechanical  con- 
ditions entirely  different  from  those  of  the  standing  position, 
such  as  fixation  of  chest,  instead  of  pelvis,  changed  relation  to 
gravity,  association  with  the  hip  joint  flexors  instead  of  the 
extensors.  Therefore  exercises  of  this  type  fail  to  give  much 
training  in  the  kind  of  coordination,  weight  distribution  and 
balance  necessary  for  a  good  carriage  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
body.  These  are  best  acquired  through  the  practice  of  exercises 
done  from  the  fundamental  standing  position. 


FIGURE  41 
OPPOSITE  SITTING  BACKWARD  LEANING  OF  THE  TRUNK 


21.  Opposite  sitting  backward  leaning  of  the  trunk.  From 
the  sitting  position  with  knees  straight  and  feet  fixed  (or,  if  the 
knees  are  bent,  with  thighs  fixed),  the  trunk  is  inclined  back- 
ward a  varying  amount.  The  movement  should  be  done  only  at 
the  hips  (extension),  without  any  lumbar  hyperextension.  The 
upper  back  is  kept  straight,  the  head  well  back  and  the  chest 
expanded. 

The  extension  in  the  hip  joint  is  caused  by  gravity  and  is 
resisted  by  the  hip  joint  flexors — psoas  and  iliacus,  sartorius, 
pectineus,  etc.  The  first  effect  of  their  contraction  is  to  fix  the 
pelvis  and  lower  lumbar  spine,  thereby  tending  to  localize  the 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  117 

movement  to  the  upper  lumbar  and  lower  thoracic  spine.  This 
tendency  is  favored  from  the  outset  by  the  strong  contraction  of 
the  lower  erector  spinae,  induced  by  efforts  to  keep  the  upper 
back  straight ;  also  by  the  direct  forward  pull  of  the  psoas  on  the 
lumbar  vertebrae,  and  by  gravity.  The  proper  localization  of  the 
movement  to  (extension  in)  the  hip  joint  demands,  therefore,  in 
the  first  place  prompt  and  vigorous  contraction  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  to  neutralize  excessive  action  of  the  lower  erector  spinae 
and  the  ilio-psoas,  and  to  resist  gravity ;  secondly,  ability  to  allow 
the  psoas  and  other  hip  joint  flexors  to  yield;  finally,  ability  to 
relax,  partly  at  least,  the  lower  erector  spinae,  without  inducing 
relaxation  of  the  upper  portions  of  this  group  and  the  posterior 
scapular  muscles.  If  these  upper  back  (and  posterior  neck) 
muscles  fail  to  act,  the  effect  of  the  pull  of  the  abdominal  mus- 
cles and  the  associated  contraction  of  the  pectorals  and  anterior 
neck  muscles  will  be  to  depress  the  chest,  to  flex  the  upper  back, 
neck  and  head,  to  draw  the  shoulders  forward  and  upward — 
literally  to  curl  up  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  This,  by  reducing 
the  weight  leverage  and  giving  the  abdominal  muscles  the  advan- 
tage, makes  the  movement  easier,  and  is  the  most  common  fault 
in  the  execution. 

To  induce  the  right  kind  of  muscular  effort  and  so  insure 
proper  localization  of  the  movement  it  is  of  advantage,  at  first, 
to  start  with  abdomen  retracted,  then  to  move  the  head  backward 
(with  chin  drawn  in),  at  the  same  time  taking  a  deep  breath. 
It  is  well  not  to  allow  the  movement  to  proceed  far  enough  to 
induce  excessive  contraction  of  the  anterior  muscles,  with  visible 
tremors,  as  this  nearly  always  leads  to  involuntary  relaxation  of 
the  upper  back  muscles.  When  properly  done,  that  is,  from  the 
hips,  with  the  whole  back  straight,  the  chest  expanded  and  the 
head  in  fundamental  position,  the  movement  is  not  only  one  of 
the  most  powerful  abdominal  exercises,  but  also  gives  excellent 
training  in  the  kind  of  muscular  control  required  for  a  good 
carriage  of  both  the  upper  and  lower  part  of  the  body. 

22.  Leg  raising  from  the  lying  position.  Lying  flat  on  the 
back,  with  hands  "behind"  the  neck  or  stretched  out  "above" 
the  head,  the  legs  are  raised,  with  straight  knees,  to  the  vertical 
position.  The  movement  consists  of  flexion  in  the  hip  joint, 
supplemented  by  flexion  of  the  pelvis  on  the  trunk — in  other 
words,  flexion  in  the  lower  spine.  The  latter  is  preceded,  dur- 
ing the  first  part  of  the  movement,  by  increased  lumbar  hyper- 
extension  associated  with  a  slight  forward  tilting  of  the  pelvis. 

The  active  muscles  are  the  hip  joint  flexors — psoas,  iliacus, 
rectus  femoris,  etc.,  and  the  abdominal  muscles.  As  in  "Opposite 
sitting  backward  leaning  of  trunk"  the  first  effect  of  the  con- 
traction of  the  hip  joint  flexors,  and  particularly  of  the  psoas- 


118 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


iliacus,   is   a  tendency  to  tilt  the  pelvis   forward    (increase   its 
obliquity),   shown  by  the  increased  arching  "forward"   of   the 

lower  spine.  This  is 
soon  checked  and 
reversed  by  the 
contraction  of  the 
abdominal  mus- 
cles. It  may  even 
be  entirely  avoided 
if  these  muscles 
are  brought  into 
strong  action  at 
the  outset  and  are 
aided  for  a  brief 
moment  by  the  hip 
joint  extensors. 

To  prevent  any 
depression  of  the 
chest  by  the  pull 
of  the  abdominal 
muscles  it  is  of  ad- 
vantage to  take  a 
deep  breath  at  the 
beginning  of  the 

movement,  exhale  when  the  vertical  position  of  the  legs  has  been 
reached,  then  inhale  again  as  the  legs  are  lowered.  This,  how- 
ever, increases  the  tendency  to  arch  the  lower  back  during  the 
first  stage  of  the  rise  and  the  last  stage  of  the  return.  In  some 
cases  there  is  difficulty  in  keeping  the  head  and  arms  in  contact 
with  the  floor  during  these  stages,  when  the  weight  leverage  is 
greatest.  This  may  be  obviated  by  grasping  some  solid  object. 
23.  The  prone  falling  position.  (Front  leaning  rest,  Fig.  24.) 
The  muscular  action  in  the  upper  trunk  and  shoulder  region  has 
already  been  described.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  body  gravity 
tends  to  flex  the  knees,  to  keep  the  hip  joints  extended  and  to 
hyperextend  the  lumbar  spine.  This  necessitates  contraction  of 
the  quadriceps  extensor  and  the  abdominal  muscles.  Associated 
action  of  the  hip  joint  flexors,  often  excessive,  is  apt  to  cause  a 
bend  at  the  hips.  When  this  is  the  case  the  hip  joint  extensors 
must  also  be  brought  into  action.  The  hip  joint  is  then  effectually 
locked  and  the  full  force  of  the  abdominal  muscles  can  be  brought 
to  bear  on  the  lower  spine  in  a  way  to  prevent  hyperextension. 
After  the  proper  muscular  control  has  been  acquired  excessive 
action  of  the  hip  joint  flexors  does  not  occur  and  action  of  the 


FIGURE  42 
LEG  RAISING  FROM  THE  LYING  POSITION 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION 


119 


A 


extensors  is  therefore  not  necessary,  gravity  being  sufficient  to 
keep  the  hip  joint  extended. 

E.      LATERAL  TRUNK  EXERCISES. 

24.  Standing  alternate  leg  flinging  sideways.  The  quick 
extreme  movement  of  the  straight  leg,  say  the  left,  directly  in 
the  lateral  plane,  will  be  assumed.  The  upper  trunk  remains 
erect,  the  shoulders  level.  The  main  joint  mechanism  is  as 
follows:  (1)  extreme  abduction  in  the  left  hip  joint;  (2)  a 
tilting  of  the  pelvis  to  the  right,  the  crest  of  the  left  ilium  being 
the  highest  point  (this  movement  takes  place  in  the  right  hip 
joint  and  is  abduction  in 
this  joint,  the  right  femur 
being  the  fixed,  and  the  pel- 
vis the  moving  segment)  ' 
(3)  a  compensatory  lateral 
bend  of  the  spine,  con- 
vexity to  right,  most  pro- 
nounced in  the  lumbar 
region. 

The  principal  muscles 
concerned  in  producing  the 
movement  and  keeping  the 
balance  are:  (1)  The  abduc- 
tors of  the  left  hip  joint — 
tensor  fasciae  latae,  glutei ; 
(3)  the  abductors  of  the 
right  hip  joint,  assisting  in 
tilting  the  pelvis;  (3)  the 
flexors  and  extensors,  of  the 
right  hip  joint,  keeping  the 
pelvis  steady  on  the  right 
femur  as  regards  the  antero- 
posterior  plane;  (4)  the 
abdominal  muscles  and 
lower  erector  spinse  on  the 
left  side,  being  the  chief 
factors  in  the  tilting  of  fhe 
pelvis  and  in  producing 
the  lateral  bend  of  the  spine. 
Their  contraction  is  preceded  by  a  momentary  contraction  of  the 
corresponding  muscles  on  the  right  side  to  check  the  displacement 
of  the  hips  and  lower  trunk  to  right,  necessary  to  balance  the 
body  on  the  right  foot;  (5)  the  right  knee  extensors  are  also 
strongly  active,  the  left  more  moderately.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  lower  leg  (and  foot)  muscles  of  the  respective  sides. 


j 


FIGURE  43.    LEG  RAISING  SIDEWAYS 
In  a  quick  flinging  the  leg  should  be  almost 
on  a  level  with  the  hip  at  the  end  of  the 
up-swing. 


120 


GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


The  alternate  movement  is  a  good  all-round  exercise  with  the 
features  of  waist  or  lateral  trunk  movements  predominating.  It 
is  capable  of  being  done  with  good,  erect  posture  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  body,  demands  quick,  successive  weight  adjustment 
and  so  offers  at  least  moderate  difficulty  in  keeping  the  balance. 
This  may  be  increased  by  doing  the  exercise  slowly,  or  by  hold- 
ing the  abducted 
position  of  the  leg 
a  varying  length  of 
time. 

25.  Standing 
side-bending  of 
trunk  (to  right). 
When  correctly 
and  completely 
done  the  exercise 
involves  the  whole 
range  of  lateral 
movement  in  the 
thoracic  and  lum- 
bar spine  and  in- 
cludes also  a  dis- 
placement of  the 
pelvis  to  the  left, 
equivalent  to  ab- 
duction in  the 
Bright  hip  joint  and 
adduction  in  the 
left.  The  plane 
of  the  shoulders 
should  not  be  dis- 
turbed ;  that  is,  the 
movement  should 
be  directly  to  the 
side,  without  twist- 
ing or  forward 

bending  in  the  upper  spine,  backward  bending  in  the  lower,  or 
flexion  at  the  hips. 

The  abdominal  muscles,  lower  erector  spinse  and  hip  joint 
abductors  on  the  right  side  contract  for  an  instant  at  the  begin- 
ning. After  that  gravity  is  the  motor  force  and  the  same  muscles 
on  the  left  side  act  "eccentrically,"  regulating  the  speed  and 
determining  the  plane  of  the  movement.  Then,  by  shortening, 
they  raise  the  trunk  to  the  fundamental  position.  The  hip  joint 
extensors  are  moderately  active  throughout.  The  upper  erector 


FIGURE  44 
SIDE-BENDING  OF  TRUNK 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  121 

spinse  and  posterior  scapular  muscles  are  also  in  a  state  of 
greater  activity  than  in  the  erect  position,  as  the  changes  in 
weight  distribution  disturb  their  ordinary  relations.  The  higher 
the  arms  are  held  the  more  this  is  the  case. 

26.  Side-bending  from  the  side-lying  position.  The  support 
is  placed  under  one  thigh,  say  the  right,  and  the  feet  are  fixed. 
The  body  should  be  approximately  horizontal,  bent  a  little  to 
the  left  (upward),  the  plane  of  the  shoulders  and  hips  vertical, 
the  hip  and  knee  joints  extended.  The  movement  from  this  posi- 
tion— side-bending  to  right — is  distributed  over  the  whole  spine 
and  continues  until  the  head  is  near  the  floor. 


FIGURE  45 
SIDE-BKNDING  FROM  THE  SIDE-LYING  POSITION 

The  principal  muscles  active  in  maintaining  the  position  against 
gravity  are  the  same  as  in  "standing  side-bending,"  viz.,  the 
abdominal  muscles,  the  erector  spinae  and  its  upper  prolongations, 
and  the  hip  joint  abductors,  all  on  the  left  side;  also  the  hip 
and  knee  joint  extensors  on  both  sides.  During  the  bending  these 
muscles  while  yielding  to  gravity  are  nevertheless  in  strong 
action  ("eccentric"),  guiding  the  movement  in  the  lateral  plane. 
During  the  return  movement  they  have  to  contract  with  extreme 
vigor  owing  to  the  great  weight  leverage.  This,  with  the  very 
considerable  amount  of  work  required  of  the  scapular  adduc- 
tors and  depressors,  makes  the  exercise  one  of  the  most  powerful 
of  the  lateral  trunk  movements. 

27.  Side  falling  position  (side  leaning  rest).  The  straight 
and  rigid  body,  with  the  (left)  side  toward  the  floor  is  supported 
on  the  left  hand  and  foot.  The  left  shoulder  joint  is  in  a  position 


122  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

of  incomplete  abduction,  the  left  scapula  at  best  is  slightly  rotated 
upward,  but  its  position  varies  according  to  the  strength  and 
control  of  the  scapular  muscles  possessed  by  the  performer.  The 
rest  of  the  body  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  in  the  fundamental 
position. 

Gravity  tends  to  produce  flexion  in  the  left  elbow,  adduction 
in  the  left  shoulder  joint,  elevation  with  some  adduction  and 
rotation  downward  of  the  left  scapula,  a  bend  to  right  in  the  spine 
(convexity  to  left),  abduction  in  the  right  hip  joint,  adduction 
in  the  left.  There  is  also  a  tendency  to  flexion  in  both  hip  joints 
and  to  forward  bending  of  the  upper  spine. 

The  principal  active  muscles  are:  the  left  triceps;  the  left 
shoulder  joint  abductors — deltoid,  supraspinatus  and  long  head 
of  biceps;  all  the  left  scapular  muscles,  and  especially  the  lower 
serratus  magnus ;  the  left  erector  spinae  and  abdominal  muscles ; 
the  left  hip  joint  abductors  and  the  right  adductors ;  also  the  hip 
joint  extensors  on  both  sides.  The  upper  erector  spinae  and  pos- 
terior neck  muscles  are  active  on  both  sides,  the  right  more  than 
the  left.  There  is  some  difficulty,  at  first,  in  keeping  the  body 
from  rolling  over  forward  or  backward.  The  balance  is  main- 
tained by  interplay  between  the  oblique  abdominal  and  back 
muscles  which  rotate  the  trunk  to  right  and  left  respectively,  as 
well  as  between  the  left  pectorals  and  serratus  magnus  on  one 
hand  and  the  left  latissimus,  posterior  deltoid,  trapezius  and 
rhomboids  on  the  other. 

The  total  muscular  work  and  the  difficulty  in  keeping  the 
balance  may  be  increased  progressively  by  moving  the  free 
(right)  arm  to  higher  levels,  and  still  more -by  raising  the  right 
leg. 

28.  Side  holding  (left  side  up).  Grasping  the  stall  bars  or 
similar  apparatus  with  the  hands  about  three  or  four  feet  apart, 
the  left  directly  above  the  right  (palms  facing  each  other),  the 
body  is  swung  out  sideways  to  an  approximately  horizontal  posi- 
tion and  held  there  as  long  as  the  strength  of  the  performer  per- 
mits. Or  the  exercise  may  be  done  as  a  rhythmical  movement, 
without  attempting  to  hold  the  position  at  the  end  of  the  up-swing. 
In  either  case  the  muscular  action  is  of  the  same  kind,  differing 
only  in  degree.  The  horizontal  position,  representing  the  maxi- 
mum effort,  will  be  assumed  for  purposes  of  analysis. 

Both  shoulder  joints  are  then  abducted  and  both  scapulae 
rotated  upward.  Gravity  tends  to  carry  the  abduction  in  the  left 
shoulder  joint  and  the  rotation  upward  of  the  left  scapula  still 
further,  while  on  the  right  side  the  opposite  tendency  prevails. 
The  spine  tends  to  bend  to  right  (convexity  to  left),  while  in  the 
hip  joints  there  is  tendency  to  adduction  in  the  left,  abduction 
in  the  right  and  flexion  in  both. 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  123 

The  muscles  which  produce  the  movement,  hold  the  position 
and  resist  in  the  return  are:  (1)  the  left  shoulder  joint  adductors 
— pectoralis  major,  latissimus  and  teres  major;  (2)  the  down- 
ward rotators  and  depressors  of  the  left  scapula — rhomboids, 
lower  trapezius  and  pectoralis  minor;  (3)  the  right  shoulder 
joint  abductors — deltoid,  supraspinatus  and  long  head  of  biceps ; 
(4)  the  upward  rotators  of  the  right  scapula — serratus  magnus 
and  trapezius  (the  depressors  of  the  right  scapulae  are  also 
active  )  ;  (5)  the  left  abdominal  muscles  and  erector  spinae;  (6) 
the  left  tensor  fasciae  latse  and  the  right  hip  joint  adductors;  (7) 
the  glutei  and  hamstring  muscles  on  both  sides.  Besides  these, 
the  right  triceps  is  strongly  active  opposing  the  tendency  of 
gravity  to  flex  the  right  elbow.  The  left  triceps  also  has  to 
contract,  as  the  strong  pull  of  the  left  shoulder  joint  adductors 
and  the  -associated  contraction  of  the  left  biceps  tend  to  flex  the 
left  elbow.  The  body  is  kept  from  swinging  forward  or  back- 
ward (toward  the  wall)  by  timely  contraction  of  all  the  upper 
back  and  posterior  shoulder  muscles,  or  the  abdominal  and 
pectoral  muscles,  respectively. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  movement,  with  the  trunk  bent  to  the 
right  and  the  left  arm  elevated,  the  left  side  of  the  chest  is 
forcibly  expanded.  During  the  ascent,  and  particularly  when  the 
body  is  in  or  near  the  horizontal  position,  the  pull  of  the  left 
shoulder  joint  adductors  and  the  scapular  depressors  on  both 
sides  makes  the  chest  expansion  general. 

The  exercise  demands  considerable  strength  and  coordination, 
but  if  the  momentum  is  properly  managed  by  swinging  the  left 
leg  first  toward  the  wall  and  then  outward,  it  is  not  as  severe  nor 
as  difficult  as  might  at  first  appear.  Keeping  the  arms  absolutely 
rigid  and  the  right  shoulder  low  throughout  are  also  essential 
factors  in  successful  performance. 

29.  Standing  alternate  trunk  twisting.  As  this  is  most  com- 
monly done,  little  or  no  restriction  is  demanded  as  to  where  the 
movement  is  to  take  place.  It  often  includes  the  cervical,  as  well 
as  the  thoracic  and  lumbar  regions  of  the  spine,  and  nearly  always 
rotation  of  the  pelvis.  The  latter  involves  movements  of  opposite 
character  in  all  the  joints  of  the  two  lower  extremities.  If  the 
twisting  is  to  left,  there  is  flexion,  rotation  inward  and  adduc- 
tion in  the  left  hip  joint,  extension,  rotation  outward  and  abduc- 
tion in  the  right;  flexion  in  the  right  knee  and  ankle  joints,  a 
slight  extension  in  the  left ;  eversion  of  the  right  foot,  inversion 
of  the  left. 

Here  the  "pure"  type  of  trunk  twisting  will  be  assumed.  This 
may  be  defined  as  taking  place  entirely  above  the  hips,  with  the 
head  remaining  immovable  relative  to  the  shoulders.  Such  a 
movement  employs  the  whole  range  of  rotation  in  the  thoracic 


124  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

spine,  as  well  as  the  small  amount  possible  in  the  lumbar  region, 
while  the  cervical  spine,  the  pelvis,  the  hip,  knee  and  ankle  joints 
remain  fixed  in  the  fundamental  position  by  conscious  muscular 
effort.  When  thus  restricted  the  movement  rarely  exceeds  45°. 

Besides  the  oblique  abdominal  and  back  muscles  directly  con- 
cerned in  the  production  of  the  movement  (enumerated  several 
times  in  connection  with  movements  previously  described,  e.g., 
in  forward  charge,  page  106)  practically  all  the  muscles  of  the 
hip  region  and  lower  extremities,  including  the  inverters  of  the 
feet,  contract  in  the  effort  to  fix  the  pelvis  and  legs.  The  scapu- 
lar adductors  and  posterior  depressors  on  both  sides  are  also 
required  to  act  vigorously  to  resist  the  strong  tendency  to  inde- 
pendent displacements  of  the  shoulders. 

The  localized  movement,  especially  when  done  quickly  and 
when  the  position  reached  by  it  is  held  a  moment,  although  of 
smaller  range,  demands  more  general  and  more  vigorous  mus- 
cular work,  and  a  great  deal  more  coordination,  than  the  more 
extensive,  less  localized  type  in  which  no  attempt  is  made  to  keep 
the  hips  immovable.  In  the  former  the  action  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  is  particularly  marked,  so  much,  in  fact,  that  the  breath- 
ing, both  diaphragmatic  and  costal,  may  be  somewhat  impeded. 
The  arches  of  the  feet  are  subjected  to  less  strain,  owing  to  the 
strong  contraction  of  the  tibialis  anticus  and  posticus,  as  well  as 
of  the  plantar  muscles,  all  associated  with  the  effort  to  fix  the 
legs  and  pelvis.  After  some  practice  the  exercise  may,  however, 
be  properly  localized  without  much  muscular  effort  below  the 
hips,  at  least  when  done  slowly. 

30.  Walking,  running  and  jumping.  For  the  mechanics  of 
locomotion  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  writings  of  those  investi- 
gators who  have  made  a  detailed  study  of  the  subject — Marey, 
Demeny,  Fisher,  Fuchs  and  others.  (See  Bibliography.)  Here 
only  the  most  obvious  features  of  the  joint  and  muscular 
mechanism  of  these  forms  of  movement  will  be  considered. 

Walking.  Starting  at  the  point  when  the  left  foot  leaves  the 
ground,  with  the  left  hip,  knee  and  ankle  joint  more  or  less 
extended,  the  sequence  of  movements  is  about  as  follows:  (1) 
Flexion  and  slight  rotation  outward  in  the  left  hip  joint  and 
flexion  in  the  left  knee  joint.  This  is  probably  chiefly  a  passive 
movement  (the  whole  leg  acting  as  a  jointed  pendulum),  aided 
perhaps  by  a  slight  contraction  of  the  hip  joint  flexors  and  out- 
ward rotators — psoas  and  iliacus,  rectus  femoris,  sartorius,  pec- 
tineus,  etc.,  and  of  the  knee  joint  flexors.  The  ankle  joint  has  to 
be  slightly  flexed  by  muscular  action  in  order  to  allow  the  toe  to 
clear  the  ground.  (2)  In  the  meanwhile,  extension  and  slight 
rotation  inward  have  taken  place  in  the  right  hip  joint,  as  well  as 
some  adduction,  shown  by  the  swaying  of  the  hips  to  right  when 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  125 

the  right  leg  receives  the  weight.  The  principal  active  muscles 
here  are  the  glutei,  tensor  fasciae  latae  and  hamstring  muscles. 
(3)  The  right  knee  joint  may  flex  somewhat  when  the  leg  receives 
the  weight,  but  this  is  checked,  and  the  joint  more  or  less  extended 
by  the  contraction  of  the  quadriceps.  (4)  The  right  ankle  joint 
has  been  flexed,  partly  by  the  momentum  of  the  body,  partly  by 
active  contraction  of  the  anterior  lower  leg  muscles.  (5)  The 
pelvis,  besides  being  displaced  to  the  right  in  the  settling  of  the 
weight  on  the  right  hip  (equivalent  to  adduction  in  the  right  hip 
joint)  has  also  rotated  to  the  right  on  the  right  femur,  so  that  the 
left  hip  is  a  little  in  advance  of  the  right  when  the  left  foot  strikes 
the  ground.  This  rotation  of  the  pelvis  may  also  be  expressed  in 
terms  of  rotation  inward  in  the  right  hip  joint  and  necessitates 
the  outward  rotation  in  the  left  hip  joint  mentioned  above.  (6) 
When  the  right  hip  joint  has  reached  complete  extension  a  fur- 
ther movement  of  the  body  in  front  of  the  right  leg  involves  a 
forward  inclination  of  the  pelvis  (increase  of  its  obliquity).  4f7) 
The  forward  inclination  and  rotation  to  the  right  of  the  pelvis 
call  for  compensatory  hyperextension  and  twisting  to  left  of  the 
spine,  in  order  to  keep  the  upper  trunk  erect  and  the  plane  of  the 
shoulders  "square"  to  the  front.  The  forward  swing  of  the  right 
arm  and  the  backward  swing  of  the  left,  if  extensive,  may  even 
induce  a  change  in  plane  of  the  shoulders  opposite  to  that  of  the 
hips,  so  that  the  right  shoulder  is  slightly  in  front  of  the  left. 
This  makes  the  left  twist  of  the  spine  more  pronounced.  Often 
there  is  also  a  depression  of  the  left  shoulder,  involving  a  bend  to 
left  (convexity  to  right)  of  the  spine.  The  erector  spinae  group 
and  the  abdominal  muscles  are  responsible  for  these  adjustments, 
the  muscles  on  the  right  side  in  the  case  of  the  former  being  most 
active,  while  in  the  case  of  the  latter  the  right  external  and  left 
internal  oblique  work  together.  The  swaying  to  right  of  the  pel- 
vis is  necessary  in  the  transfer  of  the  weight  to  the  right  foot,  and 
involves  action,  for  the  purpose  of  support,  of  the  right  abdomi- 
nal and  erector  spinae  muscles,  as  well  as  of  the  right  hip  joint 
abductors. 

The  different  phases  of  each  stride  in  walking  vary  consider- 
ably with  the  frequency  and  length  of  the  stride.  Thus,  for 
example,  in  slow  sauntering  the  knee  of  the  advancing  leg  is  com- 
pletely extended  when  the  foot  strikes  the  ground,  while  in  some 
forms  of  rapid  walking  it  may  remain  partly  flexed  at  that 
moment.  In  the  so-called  flexion  gait,  cultivated  or  natural,  it  is 
not  completely  extended  at  any  time.  The  lateral  oscillation 
and  rotation  of  the  pelvis,  and  the  compensatory  movements  of 
spine,  shoulders  and  arms,  are  also  subject  to  variations  with 
individual  peculiarities  of  structure  and  habits  of  movement.  It 
is  these  individual  variations  in  the  elements  of  the  complete  step 


126  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

that  make  the  gait  of  each  individual  characteristic,  and  they 
indicate,  perhaps  better  than  any  other  single  form  of  movement, 
the  degree  of  subjective  motor  control  and  the  general  motor 
habits  of  the  individual.  In  gymnastic  marching,  and  especially 
in  certain  forms  of  balance  marching  and  steps,  it  is  possible  to 
analyze,  to  some  extent,  these  elements  and  by  emphasizing  some 
or  "toning  down"  others,  to  improve  the  gait.  Turning  up  the 
toe  of  the  advancing  foot  excessively,  may  be  helped  by  practic- 
ing a  step  in  which  the  ball  of  the  foot  strikes  the  floor  first,  or 
in  which  the  sole  remains  parallel  to  the  floor;  excessive  lateral 
sway  and  rotation  of  the  pelvis,  or  the  compensatory  swinging 
and  depression  of  the  shoulders,  may  be  made  less  pronounced 
by  balance  marching  in  which  these  movements  of  the  pelvis  and 
shoulders  are  reduced  to  a  minimum.  All  these  exercises  tend  to 
improve  the  individual's  sense  of  balance,  habits  of  weight  dis- 
tribution and  localization  of  movement,  and  if  supplemented  by 
constant  attention  and  persistent  application  outside  of  the  gym- 
nasium, may  be  expected  to  produce  appreciable  results  in  the 
way  of  permanent  improvement  of  the  gait. 

Running.  This  form  of  locomotion,  like  walking,  presents  so 
many  different  varieties  that  it  would  be  difficult  to  describe  a 
typical  style.  It  differs  from  walking  essentially  in  that  the 
body  leaves  the  ground  entirely  at  each  step,  and  in  that  the 
excursions  of  the  legs  and  the  oscillations  of  the  pelvis  and 
shoulders  are,  in  general,  more  extensive.  In  fast  running  prac- 
tically all  the  muscles  of  the  body  are  in  action,  most  pronounced 
in  the  case  of  the  extensors  of  the  hip,  knee  and  ankle,  the  flexors 
of  the  hip,  and  the  erector  spinse  and  abdominal  muscles. 

Jumping.  Here  again  there  are  a  number  of  styles  or  types, 
differing  widely  in  detail,  from  the  simple  gymnastic  jump,  in 
which  the  trunk  remains  vertical  and  facing  forward,  to  the  very 
complex  forms  of  running  high  jump  used  in  athletic  competition, 
in  which  the  trunk  is  inclined  backward  and  a  more  or  less  sharp 
or  complete  turn  is  executed  at  the  moment  of  passing  the  bar. 

In  all  forms,  however,  the  spring  consists  of  a  preliminary 
flexion  of  the  knee,  hip  and  ankle  joints  of  one  side,  followed  by 
a  quick  extension  in  these  joints,  and  a  flexion  in  the  hip  joint 
and  sometimes  the  knee  joint  of  the  other  side.  This  is  in  turn 
followed  by  flexion  in  the  joints  of  the  springing  leg,  accom- 
panied or  not,  as  the  case  may  be,  by  a  twist,  or  turn,  of  the 
whole  body  toward  the  side  of  this  leg. 

Jumping,  even  more  than  running,  involves  very  general  mus- 
cular action,  the  back,  hip,  knee  and  ankle  extensors,  the  hip 
joint  flexors  and  the  abdominal  muscles  being  the  principal 
groups.  The  action  is  of  a  more  sudden  and  extreme  character 
and  more  delicately  adjusted,  demanding  a  relatively  higher 


LOWER  TRUNK  AND  HIP  REGION  127 

degree  of  coordination.  Here  judgment  of  distance  and  momen- 
tum, correct  timing  and  sequence  of  effort  are  perhaps  more 
essential  for  successful  performance  than  in  any  other  form  of 
movement.  But  because  of  the  intermittent  and  violent  character 
of  the  muscular  work,  jumping,  from  a  physiological  standpoint, 
is  not  as  useful  a  general  exercise  as  running. 


SUMMARY. 


In  the  introduction  the  general  character  of  gymnastics  was 
contrasted  with  that  of  the  other  principal  forms  of  exercise  used 
as  agents  in  physical  education.  The  effectiveness  of  gymnastics 
in  certain  directions,  such  as  equalizing  growth  and  development, 
favoring  correct  anatomical .  relations  and  increasing  the  func- 
tional activity  of  the  great  vital  organs,  was  assumed  to  be  gen- 
erally recognized.  It  was  further  claimed  that  gymnastics  of  the 
right  kind  may  be  made  one  of  the  most  effective  agents  in  motor 
education,  and  particularly  in  that  phase  which  has  to  do  with  the 
carriage  and  management  of  the  parts  of  the  body  with  reference 
to  each  other,  and  of  the  body  as'  a  whole  with  reference  to 
external  forces  and  things  in  a  purely  subjective  manner,  such  as 
its  position  in  space,  its  relation  and  adjustment  to  gravity, 
inertia  and  momentum — involving  weight  distribution  and  bal- 
ance; direction,  speed  and  accuracy  of  movement;  timing  and 
proper  distribution  of  effort.  The  degree  and  quality  of  this 
subjective  motor  control  are  suggested  by  such  terms  as  bearing, 
poise,  physical  presence,  grace,  agility.  Its  value  as  a  means  of 
expression,  as  a  factor  in  the  social  relations  of  life  and  as  a 
basis  for  physical  efficiency  is  variously  estimated  and  on  the 
whole  probably  underrated. 

In  the  analysis  of  the  gymnastic  exercises  it  was  frequently 
pointed  out  how  apparently  slight  difference^  in  the  definition  of 
an  exercise,  or  emphasis  on  some  particular  feature,  may  change 
it  from  an  easy  insignificant  movement,  requiring  relatively 
slight  expenditure  of  energy  and  offering  little  or  no  difficulty  of 
coordination,  to  one  calling  for  vigorous,  discriminating,  well- 
coordinated  muscular  efforts,  usually  of  a  kind  tending  directly 
or  indirectly  to  preserve  erect  carriage  and  to  improve  postural 
relations.  Indeed,  conscious  effort  to  maintain  good  posture 
under  all  conditions  is  (or  should  be)  one  of  the  chief  char- 
acteristics of  gymnastic  movements.  It  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant elements  of  that  definiteness  of  detail  which  distinguishes 
the  gymnastic  movement  from  its  non-gymnastic  prototype,  and 
which  makes  the  former  so  much  more  difficult  than  the  latter. 

1.  Definiteness  of  gymnastic  exercises.  If  the  objects  of  gym- 
nastics are  to  include  such  things  as  refinement  of  subjective 
motor  control  and  improvement  of  postural  relations,  these  objects 
can  hardly  be  attained  in  any  marked  degree  by  the  practice  of 
vague,  ill-defined,  relatively  complex  movements,  executed  in  a 
listless,  haphazard,  slovenly  or  at  best  mechanical,  oscillatory 


SUMMARY  129 

manner.  It  is  not  reasonable  to  expect  that  work  which  does  not 
call  for  concentration  of  attention  and  effort,  for  discrimination 
and  judgment,  shall  cultivate  these  powers  and  qualities  in  the 
doer  and  lead  to  habits  of  efficient  action.  To  do  this  the  gym- 
nastic movements  must  be  selected,  defined  and  presented  in  a 
way  to  focus  attention,  to  exercise  the  discriminative  and  inhibi- 
tive  powers,  and  to  elicit  vigorous,  clean-cut,  well-adjusted  motor 
reactions.  Moreover,  to  suit  the  needs  of  the  majority  they  must 
embody  certain  essential  features,  relating  to  the  carriage  of  the 
body,  the  quantity,  kind,  variety,  distribution  and  continuity  of 
the  muscular  work.  To  b.e  capable  of  presentation  to  an  execu- 
tion in  unison  by  a  number  of  individuals,  and  in  a  manner  to 
bring  out  their  full  effects,  they  must  be  relatively  simple,  or  if 
complex,  must  be  capable  of  subdivision  into  simpler  elements, 
each  of  which  may  be  presented  and  executed  as  a  complete 
movement.  They  must  be  sharply  defined  in  every  detail,  such 
as  plane  or  direction,  kind,  extent  and  speed  of  movement ;  parts 
of  the  body  involved;  the  exact  relation  of  these  parts  in  the 
position  reached  by  the  movement ;  relative  length  of  time  spent 
in  moving  and  in  holding  the  position — rhythm;  the  muscles  or 
groups  of  muscles  brought  into  action  and  the  character  of  their 
action.  With  this  exactness  of  definition  there  must  be  insistence 
on  promptness,  precision  and  unison  in  the  execution.  Whether 
the  exercises  are  done  singly  on  command  or  repeated  rhythmic- 
ally, each  movement  (or  each  part  of  a  compound  or  alternating 
movement)  must  be  completed,  and  the  position  marking  its  com- 
pletion held  for  a  brief  space  of  time,  before  the  return,  or  the 
next  part,  is  begun.  This  involves  checking  momentum  and  over- 
coming inertia  at  every  point,  introduces  the  element  of  balance 
and  redistribution  of  weight  more  frequently  or  more  promi- 
nently, compels  more  complete,  powerful  and  varied  muscular 
action,  gives  the  pupil  an  opportunity  to  note  and  understand 
what  he  is  doing,  and  the  teacher  a  chance  to  help  him,  if 
necessary.  On  the  degree  of  definiteness  in  all  these  respects 
depends,  to  a  great  extent,  the  effectiveness  of  gymnastic  exer- 
cises in  the  directions  already  indicated.  Lacking  this,  gymnastic 
work  is  justified  only  on  grounds  of  hygienic  necessity,  is  merely 
a  rather  uninteresting,  monotonous  way  of  getting  muscular 
exercise  when  nothing  more  attractive  is  available. 

This  element  of  definiteness  in  gymnastic  movements,  on 
which  their  special  effectiveness  so  largely  depends,  involves  a 
number  of  closely  related  factors,  some  of  the  most  important  of 
which  are:  localization  of  movement,  localization  of  muscular 
contraction,  fixation,  the  supporting  function  of  muscles. 

2.  Localization  of  movement.  With  this  is  meant  the  con- 
finement of  movement  to  certain  specified  regions,  the  limitation 


130  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

of  the  number  of  segments  or  joints  taking  part,  and  usually  the 
emphasis  or  completeness  of  one  kind  of  movement  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  others.  As  regards  joint  mechanism,  therefore, 
localization  is  equivalent  to  simplicity  and  definiteness  of  move- 
ment. Thus,  for  example,  the  gymnastic  movement  forward 
bending  of  trunk  takes  place  chiefly  in  the  hip  joints,  while  the 
spine,  chest  and  shoulder  girdle  remain  in  fundamental  position ; 
in  trunk  twisting  the  spine  is  the  region  of  localization,  while  the 
pelvis  and  lower  extremities  remain  immovable ;  in  arm  bending 
the  completeness  of  flexion  in  the  elbow  and  of  rotation  outward 
in  the  shoulder  joint,  with  a  minimum  amount  of  abduction  or 
hyperextension  in  the  shoulder  joint  and  displacement  of  the 
scapula,  are  the  essential  features. 

The  muscular  action  in  localized  movements  differs  from  that 
in  non-localized  movements  chiefly  in  two  ways,  the  prominence 
of  the  one  or  the  other  depending  upon  the  nature  of  the  move- 
ment and  on  the  degree  of  muscular  control  possessed  by  the 
individual.  (1)  Movement  may  be  localized  by  inhibiting  the 
action  of  all  muscles  not  directly  concerned,  that  is,  by  localizing 
the  muscular  action  to  those  groups  only  which  pull  directly  on 
the  segments  involved.  (2)  By  neutralizing  the  effect  of  adven- 
titious or  associated  muscular  action,  of  gravity,  momentum 
and  inertia  through  static  action  of  muscles  antagonistic  to  these 
forces,  thereby  insuring  fixation  of  all  parts  which  it  is  desired 
to  exclude  from  the  movement. 

3.  Localization  of  muscular  contraction.  Most  movements 
are  produced  by  combined  or  associated  action  of  many  muscles. 
This  association  or  functional  grouping  of  muscles  may  serve 
the  purpose  of  producing  any  one  of  several  kinds  of  movements 
possible  in  one  joint,  or  it  may  be  of  a  more  general  character, 
leading  to  movement  of  the  same  kind  in  several  joints.  The 
combined  action  of  the  latissimus,  teres  major  and  pectoralis 
major  in  producing  adduction  in  the  shoulder  joint  is  an  exam- 
ple of  the  first  kind  of  grouping ;  the  associated  action  of  the  hip 
joint  flexors  and  the  abdominal  muscles  in  raising  the  leg  forward 
is  a  good  example  of  the  second.  When  it  is  desired  to  move  a 
segment  through  a  wide  range,  or  against  considerable  resistance, 
or  very  quickly,  the  tendency  is.  always_tp_distribute  the  move- 
ment over  many  joints  and  to  bring  into  action  a  great  number 
of  associated  muscle  groups.  But  even  in  movements  of  moderate 
extent,  speed  and  power  this  tendency  to  distribution  is  strong. 
Moderate  contraction  of  many  muscles  seems  easier  than  power- 
ful contraction  of  a  few,  even  if  the  total  expenditure  of  energy 
is  greater  in  the  long  run.  At  any  rate  this  kind  of  muscular 
action  is  apt  to  lead  to  excessive,  cumbersome  and  ill-adjusted 
movement. 


SUMMARY  131 

Localization  of  muscular  contraction  is  the  limitation  of  the 
number  of  muscles  or  groups  taking  part  in  the  production  of  a 
given  movement.  It  implies  inhibition  of  unnecessary,  induced  or 
associated  muscular  action,  often  involves  disassociation  of  large, 
fundamental  group  associations,  and  is  thus  a  determining  factor 
in  the  number,  variety  and  accuracy  of  coordinated  movements. 
The  power  of  localized  muscular  action  varies  in  individuals  and 
in  different  parts  of  the  body.  In  the  trunk  it  is  never  very  great, 
but  it  may  be  increased  by  training./  One  way  to  increase  this 
power  is  by  the  practice  of  definite  gymnastic  exercises,  in  which 
the  movements  are  localized  through  fixation  by  conscious  mus- 
cular effort  of  all  parts  not  directly  concerned  (see  fixation). 
This,  for  one  thing,  gives  opportunity  for  complete  and  vigorous 
contraction  of  the  motor  muscles  proper.  )/It  also  teaches  the  indi- 
vidual to  perceive  more  clearly  the  different  elements  of  complex 
movements,  to  appreciate  finer  distinctions  and  to  "find"  more 
readily  the  right  kind  and  degree  of  muscular  action  needed  in 
these  combinations.  By  means  of  the  keener  kinesthetic  sense 
cultivated  in  this  way  he  is  able,  after  a  while,  to  inhibit  more 
perfectly  the  unnecessary  muscular  contractions  induced  through 
habitual  association  of  groups  belonging  to  the  same  general 
system,  and  to  reduce  correspondingly  the  amount  of  muscular 
work  necessary  for  purposes  of  fixation.  The  extent  to  which 
all  unnecessary  muscular  action  can  be  thus  eliminated,  represents 
the  degree  of  power  of  localized  muscular  contraction,  and  this, 
in  the  last  analysis,  is  the  basis  of  skill,  grace  and  economy  of 
effort.  The  whole  process  may  be  summarized  by  the  statement 
made  in  the  introductory  part,  that  by  the  practice  of  definite, 
localized  gymnastic  exercises,  the  inhibition  of  unnecessary  ele- 
ments in  movement  becomes  a  central  rather  than  a  peripheral 
affair. 

4.  Fixation.  Aside  from  the  instinctive  tendency  to  distribute 
movement  over  large  areas  through  the  induced  contraction  of 
muscles  habitually  associated,  localization  of  movement  is  made 
difficult  by  the  mechanical  influence  of  many  muscles  on  other 
parts  than  those  to  which  they  are  attached.  The  majority  of  the 
larger  muscles,  and  especially  those  of  the  trunk,  play  over 
several  joints  and  by  their  contraction  or  tension  produce  or 
modify  movement,  not  only  of  the  segments  to  which  they  are 
attached  but  of  intervening  segments  as  well.  Sometimes, 
through  passive  tension  of  other  muscles,  or  through  mechanical 
fixation  of  distant  points  (hands  or  feet),  movement  may  be  pro- 
duced even  in  parts  which  lie  beyond  those  on  which  the  muscles 
pull  directly.  For  example,  in  arm  bending  from  the  hanging 
position  the  latissimus  dorsi,  primarily  concerned  in  the  effort  to 
bring  the  humerus  down  to  the  side  of  the  body,  also  indirectly 


132  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

helps  to  depress  the  scapula  and  rotate  it  downward  and  to  flex 
the  elbow.  If  the  elbows  are  allowed  to  move  forward  the  com- 
bined, oblique  pull  of  the  right  and  left  muscles  will  tend  to  draw 
the  lower  middle  back  forward  and  to  round  the  upper  back. 
Similarly,  the  two  great  pectorals  in  their  effort  to  draw  the  arms 
forward  across  the  chest  will  also,  unless  resisted  by  the  upper 
back  muscles,  cause  a  forward  displacement  of  the  shoulder  gir- 
dle and  flex  the  thoracic  spine.  The  contraction  of  such  muscles, 
therefore,  leads  to  distribution  rather  than  localization  of  move- 
ment. 

Gravity  is  another  important  factor  in  the  tendency  to  dis- 
tribute movement.  With  every  movement  the  center  of  gravity 
for  the  body  as  a  whole  is  displaced  more  or  less,  or  the  centers 
for  different  parts  or  regions  change  their  relations  to  the  gen- 
eral center.  For  every  movement  of  one  part  of  the  body  away 
from  the  general  weight  line  in  one  direction,  there  must  be  a 
corresponding  displacement  of  another  part  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion in  order  to  keep  the  general  center  of  gravity  directly  over 
the  point  of  support  and  so  preserve  the  equilibrium.  The  far- 
ther any  part  is  projected  beyond  the  point  of  support  the  greater 
is  the  tendency  for  all  the  segments  between  this  point  and  the 
point  of  farthest  projection  to  change  their  relative  positions — 
to  topple  over  or  collapse.  The  extent  of  this  is  limited  by  passive 
tension  on  muscles  in  a  state  of  tonic  contraction  of  varying 
degree,  and  finally  by  ligaments.  Bowing  and  stooping  down 
with  bent  back  are  typical  examples  of  movements  produced  by 
gravity  and  involving  all  joints  from  the  hips  up. 

The  degree  of  localization  or  distribution  of  a  movement  is 
often  influenced  by  inertia,  momentum  and  the  recoil  of  tissues 
which  have  been  subjected  to  strong  tension.  This  is  especially 
apt  to  be  the  case  in  movements  of  considerable  speed.  For 
example,  in  a  charge  the  trunk  tends  to  arch  backward  during 
the  first  part  and  to  bend  forward  at  the  end  of  the  movement. 
In  a  quick  arm  flinging  forward-upward  the  movement  of  the 
arm  is  communicated  to  the  trunk,  causing  a  backward  bending 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  spine.  After  the  arms  have  reached  the 
greatest  possible  elevation  they  are  apt  to  drop  forward  again 
from  the  recoil  of  the  muscles  and  fibrous  structures  in  front  of 
the  shoulders.  To  hold  a  sharply  defined  position  reached  by  a 
quick  movement  therefore  requires  additional  work  of  a  static 
character  on  the  part  of  the  muscles  which  produce  the  move- 
ment. The  range  and  distribution  of  any  movement  whatever 
will  then  be  determined  on  one  hand  by  the  extent  to  which  one 
or  all  of  the  above  factors  operate,  on  the  other  by  the  extent  to 
which  these  factors  are  neutralized  through  fixation  of  segments. 


SUMMARY  133 

Aside  from  fixation  by  external  forces,  the  range  of  movement  as 
well  as  the  number  of  segments  involved  is  limited  in  two  ways : 

(1)  By  passive  fixation.     When  the  motor  force  cannot  be 
very  accurately  localized — as  in  the  case  of  movements  produced 
by  muscles  running  over  several  joints,  or  by  associated  action  of 
many  muscles  running  in  the  same  general  direction  over  a  num- 
ber of  segments,  or  by  gravity — all  the  segments  on  which  the 
force  acts  will  move  at  the  points  and  in  the  directions  of  least 
resistance  and  until   resistance  which   the   motor   force  cannot 
overcome  is  encountered.     Such  resistance  is  offered  in  the  first 
place  by  the  passive  tension  of  muscles  in  a  state  of  ordinary 
tonic  contraction  and  situated  on  the  side  opposite  to  that  toward 
which  movement  is  taking  place;  secondly  by  the  tightening  of 
ligaments  and  the  locking  or  contact  of  bony  processes.     In  this 
way  movement  of  the  different  segments  is  successively  retarded 
or  checked,  two  or  more  segments  are  locked  together  and  move 
as  one,  and  the  motor  force  is  finally  brought  to  bear  exclusively 
on  those  segments  whose  joints  possess  the  greatest  freedom  of 
motion.    Examples  of  this  kind  of  fixation  are  numerous  in  move- 
ments of  the  trunk,  shoulder  and  hip  regions.     Bending  forward 
from  the  hips  without  making  any  special  effort  to  keep  the  back 
straight  has  already  been  given  to  illustrate  the  action  of  gravity. 
Here  the  flexion  in  the  hip  joint  is  supplemented  by  a  forward 
movement  of  the  head,  shoulder  girdle  and  upper  spine,  varying 
in  amount  according  to  the  tone  of  the  back  muscles  and  the 
mobility  of  the  spinal  joints.    Only  at  the  very  last  is  the  move- 
ment localized  entirely  to  the  hip  joints.     In  the  shoulder  joint 
localization  through  passive  fixation  occurs  only,  if  at  all,  at  the 
very  beginning  of   slow   and  easy  arm   movements,   or   at  the 
extreme  end  of  such  movements  when  quick  or  forcible,  after  the 
limits  of  motion  in  the  joints  of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  upper 
spine  have  been  reached. 

Passive  fixation  is  rarely,  if  ever,  sufficient  to  localize  move- 
ment in  a  way  to  insure  definiteness.  In  fact,  when  such  fixation 
is  allowed  to  determine  the  character  of  movement,  definiteness 
is  usually  conspicuous  by  its  absence.  It  is  the  mode  of  fixation 
used  in  large,  vague,  distributed  or  oscillatory  movements,  often 
forming  parts  of  reflex  coordinations,  in  which  there  is  little  or 
no  attempt  to  localize  muscular  contraction,  and  in  which  accu- 
rate adjustment  to  varying  conditions  is  not  a  prominent  element. 

(2)  By  active  fixation.    This  is  the  mode  of  fixation  used  in 
definite,  localized  movements.    Here  the  effect  of  the  motor  force 
on  the  segments  which  it  is  desired  to  exclude  from  the  move- 
ment is  neutralized,  and  displacement  of  these  segments  checked 
or  prevented,  by  active  contraction,  usually  static,   of  muscles 
opposed  to  such  displacements.     In  new  or  unfamiliar  forms  of 


I 

134  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 


movement  the  first  attempts  to  localize  by  this  kind  of  fixation  are 
apt  to  lead  to  excessive  and  too  distributed  action  on  the  part  of 
the  fixator  as  well  as  the  motor  muscles.  This  is  shown  by  stiff- 
ness and  jerkiness,  sometimes  by  slowness  and  limitation  of  range 
of  the  movement.  But  with  practice  the  individual  learns  to  bal- 
ance and  time  the  two  kinds  of  muscular  action  better,  to  confine 
both  to  the  smallest  possible  area  and  to  guage  the  amount  and 
speed  of  the  effort  so  as  to  produce  a  smooth  and  precise  move- 
ment. This  is  the  usual  process  in  learning  movements  requiring 
fine  adjustment,  speed  and  power,  or  balance  and  smooth 
sequence,  such  as  walking,  dancing,  fencing,  gymnastic  feats,  etc. 

In  gymnastics  active  fixation  is  used  to  maintain  correct  pos- 
ture of  the  head  and  trunk  throughout  all  movements,  to  increase 
the  power  of  localized  muscular  action  everywhere  and  particu- 
larly in  the  upper  back  and  abdominal  regions.  By  giving  exer- 
cises which  demand  complete,  powerful  and  well-adjusted  con- 
traction of  the  muscles  in  these  regions  it  is  hoped  to  increase 
their  tone  and  endurance  as  well  as  the  ease  or  facility  with  which 
they  can  be  brought  into  play  without  inducing  too  strong  action 
on  the  part  of  their  habitual  associates — the  lower  back  muscles 
and  hip  joint  flexors  respectively.  On  this  depends  their  effi- 
ciency as  supporting  muscles  of  their  respective  regions. 

5.  The  Supporting  Function  of  Muscles.  The' majority  of  the 
muscles  of  the  trunk  and  lower  extremities  may  be  said  to  have 
two  functions.  One  is  to  move  the  bones  to  which  they  are 
attached,  and  may  be  called  their  active  or  motor  function;  the 
other  is  to  retain  these  bones  in  their  proper  position.  This  might 
be  called  their  passive  or  supporting  function.-  The  skeleton  is  a 
column  of  superimposed  segments,  held  together  by  ligaments 
and  fibro-cartilages  in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  a  varying  amount 
of  movement  between  these  segments.  Because  of  this  mobility 
the  column  is  unstable,  cannot  be  balanced  and  kept  erect  without 
steadying  or  fixation  by  muscles.  The  habitual  posture  of  any 
part  of  the  column  will  depend,  for  one  thing,  on  the  efficiency 
of  the  muscles  responsible  for  the  support  of  this  part.  The 
efficiency  of  muscles  as  regards  their  active  or  motor  function 
depends  upon  their  strength  and  size ;  their  efficiency  as  regards 
their  supporting  function  depends  upon  their  tone  and  endurance. 

Muscular  tone,  tonicity  or  tonic  contraction  are  terms  used  to 

denote  the  constant,  moderate  contraction  of  muscles.  It  deter- 
mines their  habitual  length  as  well  as  their  (apparent)  consist- 
ency. It  is  a  relative  quality  varying  in  individuals  and  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body.  It  is  not  necessarily  proportional  to  the 
actual  strength,  size  or  development  of  the  muscles.  Nor  does 
work  which  is  conducive  to  increase  in  size  and  strength  neces- 
sarily increase  relative  tone.  The  kind  of  work  best  suited  for 


SUMMARY  135 

the  improvement  of  the  motor  function  of  muscles  involves  com- 
plete contraction  against  considerable  resistance,  alternating  with 
complete  relaxation.  For  the  improvement  of  their  supporting 
function  work  requiring  static  contraction  (complete  or  nearly 
so)  for  considerable  periods  of  time,  relieved  by  only  partial 
relaxation,  or  by  complete  relaxation  without  tension,  is  probably 
most  effective. 

In  gymnastics  the  work  should  be  of  a  character  tending  to 
improve  the  functional  efficiency  of  muscles  both  as  organs  of 
support  and  of  motion.  This  applies  especially  to  those  regions 
in  which  the  constant  influences  of  daily  life  tend  to  disturb  the 
proper  anatomical  relations  and  to  reduce  the  scope  and  variety 
of  the  muscular  action  to  a  minimum.  To  this  end  the  exercises 
should,  so  far  as  possible,  reverse  the  habitual  conditions  of  pos- 
ture and  movement  in  these  regions.  They  should  cultivate  the 
mobility  at  the  points  and  in  the  directions  in  which  it  tends  to 
become  limited,  viz.,  extension  in  the  upper  spine  and  usually 
flexion  in  the  lower;  upward  and  backward  movement  of  the 
head,  neck  and  arms.  They  should  call  for  frequent  complete, 
vigorous  and  well  localized  contractions  of  the  upper  erector 
spinae,  posterior  neck  and  scapular  muscles,  or  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  and  hip  joint  extensors,  and  for  moderate  contraction 
of  these  muscles  at  all  times,  under  a  variety  of  conditions  and 
increasing  difficulties.  The  results  of  diligent  practice  of  gymnas- 
tic exercises  of  this  character  will  show  themselves  in  increased 
tone,  endurance,  and  power  of  localized  muscular  action,  in  higher 
ideals  and  improved  habits  of  posture  and  movement. 


LITERATURE. 

Albert.     Zur  Mechanik  des   Schultergiirtels.     Wiener  med.  Jahrb.   1877, 

Heft.   I. 

Bancroft,  J.  H.     Posture  of  School  Children.  1913.     Macmillan. 
Bowen,   W.    P.     Action   of   muscles.     Michigan    State   Normal   College, 

Ypsilanti,   Mich. 
Braune,  W.  und  Fischer,  O.    Der  Gang  des  Menschen.    Abhandl.  des  math. 

phys.  Klasse  des  konigl.     Sachs.  Gesellsch.  d.  Wissensh.  Band  XXV., 

XXVI.,  XXVIII. 

Bradford,  E.  H.    Movement  of  the  Front  or  the  Foot  in  Walking.    Jour- 
nal of  the  Boston  Society  of  Medical  Sciences.     III.,  7,  p.  205. 
Bradford,  E.  H.     Flexion  or  Bent  Knee  Marching.     New  York  Medical 

Journal,  January  27,  1900,  p.   109. 
Brevoor,  C.  E.    On  Muscular  Movements  and  their  Representation  in  the 

Central  Nervous   System.     Croomian  lectures,  London,   1904.     R.   D. 

Adlard  &  Sons. 
Busch.     Ueber  die  Function  des  Serratus  anticus  major.     Arch.   f.  klm. 

Chir.  Band  IV.,  1863. 
Carlet.    Essai  experimental  sur  la  locomotion  humaine,  etude  de  la  marche. 

Annales  des  Sciences  naturalles.     V.  Serie,  Zoologie,  1872. 


136  GYMNASTIC  KINESIOLOGY 

Cathcart.  Movements  of  the  Shoulder  Girdle  Involved  in  Those  of  the 
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1882. 

Cleland.  A  Lecture  on  the  Shoulder  Girdle  and  Its  Movements.  Lancet, 
1881. 

Cleland.  Notes  on  Raising  the  Arm.  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physi- 
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Demeny,  G.  Les  bases  scientifiques  de  Teducation  physique,  pp.  109-125. 
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de  1'epaule. 

Demeny,  G.  Mechanisme  et  education  des  mouvements.  Felix  Alcan, 
Paris,  1904. 

Demeny,  G.  Precision  in  Physical  Training.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
February,  1891. 

Duchenne,  G.  B.     Physiologic  des  mouvements.     Paris,  1867.  . 

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1879. 

Fuchs,  R.  Der  Gang  des  Menschen.  Biologisches  Centralblatt,  XXL, 
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Gray.     Textbook  of  Anatomy. 

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Anat.  und  Physiol.  Phys.  Abteil.  1877. 

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SUMMARY  137 

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INDEX. 

Page 

Abdominal  Exercises 112 

Abdominal  Muscles,  action  of 90,  91 

association  with  hip  joint  flexors  (and  the  pec-' 

torals) 54,  58,  113 

association  with  hip  joint  extensors  and  lower 

erector  spinae 99 1  H7(  119 

Active  fixation '  133 

Alternate  foot  placings 100 

Alternate  knee  upward  bending,  standing  and  hanging 114,  115 

Alternate  leg  flinging  forward 112 

sideways 119 

Alternate  leg  raising  backward ; 110 

Alternate  trunk  twisting 123 

Arching  movements 23 

Arm  bending,  from  Fundamental  standing  position 27 

Cross  Rest  (the  "Dip") 79 

Fall  Hanging  position 57 

Hanging  position,  reverse  grasp 52 

ordinary  grasp 54 

Prone  Falling  position 78 

Arm  parting,  following  Arm  Raising  forward 44 

Arm  raising  forward  to  horizontal  position 41 

Arm  raising  forward-upward 45 

sideways 30 

with  palms  up 36 

sideways-upward 39 

Arm  stretchings,  following  arm  bending 46 

Associated  movements  of  lower  spine,  pelvis  and  legs 85 

Associated  action  of  the  anterior  muscle  groups 54,  66,  68,  113 

posterior  muscle  groups 24,  98,  109,  110 

deltoid,  trapezius  and  serratus  magnus 31 

Athletics  and  games,  character  of 1 

effects  of 3 

Back  exercises 25,  104 

Backward  bending  of  head 22 

Backward  bending  of  trunk,  from  Fundamental  standing  position 23 

leaning      "  "       Opposite  sitting  position 116 

Back  Vault 73 

Balance-weighing  position 67 

Charges 103 

Chest  expansion,  joint  mechanism 12 

muscular  mechanism 14,  23,  28,  29 

Chinning  the  bar 53 

Circling  the  bar  to  Front  Rest 60 

Climbing 58 

Cross  Rest 78 

Dancing 5,  6 

Definiteness  of  gymnastic  exercises 128 

Different  types  of  standing  position 92 

"Dip"  and  '  'Push  up' '  on  parallel  bars 79,  81 

Distinctive  features  of  arm  stretchings 48 

Distinctive  features  of  gymnastics,  as  compared,  etc 1-7 

Exercises  involving  support  on  the  arms 67 


140  INDEX 

Page 

Excessive  action  of  pectorals 68 

1 '  lower  erector  spinae 24,  95 

Face  Vault 71 

Fall  Hanging  position 56 

arm  bending  from 57 

Faulty  gymnastic  standing  position 96 

Fixation 131 

active  and  passive 133 

of  shoulder  girdle 35,  43,  48,  69 

of  pelvis 124 

Flat  backed  standing  position 94 

Flattening  of  the  back,  muscular  mechanism  of 32,  43,  77 

Flank  Vault.     See  Side  Vault 72 

Forward  bending  of  arms 32 

trunk,  from  Fundamental  standing  position  .  .25,  108 

' '      Prone  lying  position 109 

Forward  charge 104 

Forward  circle,  from  Front  Rest . . . , 62 

Forward-downward  bending  of  trunk. 26,  108 

Foot  placings  and  knee  bendings 100 

'  'Free' '  Front  Rest 70 

Free  standing  arching  movements 22 

arm  and  shoulder  blade  movements 27 

back  movements 25,  108 

Front  Rest 67 

Front  Vault 75 

Front  Vault.     See  Face  Vault 71 

Fundamental  gymnastic  standing  position 21,  97 

Gravity  as  a  factor  in  movement 17,  132 

Gymnastic  exercises,  character  of 1,  5 

Gymnastics  and  dancing,  effects  of 4 

Gymnastic  compared  with  non-gymnastic  exercises 6,  31,  43,  128 

Half  sideways  bending  of  arms 36 

Hand  stand ; 74 

Hand  traveling  on  suspension  apparatus 51 

Hanging  position,  active  and  passive 49 

with  reverse  grasp 52 

arm  bending  from 53, -56 

Head  bending  backward 22 

Hip  joint 89 

muscles 90 

varied  action  of 92 

Hollow  backed  standing  position 94,  96 

Horizontal  position  on  one  foot  (Hor.  half  st.  pos. ) 108 

Horizontal  Vaults 71 

Indefinite  and  definite  gymnastic  exercises 7,  128 

Inertia  as  a  factor  in  movement 17,  132 

Importance  of  trunk  movements 10 

Internal  resistance  as  a  factor  in  movement 18,  132 

Inverted  Hanging  position '. 63 

pull-up  over  bar 65 

Joints  of  upper  trunk  and  shoulder  region 11 

' '  lower  trunk  and  hip  region 88 

Jump  Vault 75 

Jumping 127 

"Kip" 66 

Knee  bending,  standing 102 


INDEX  141 

Page 

Knee  upward  bending,  alternate,  standing 114,  115 

from  Hanging  position 115 

double  "         115 

Knee  Vault 75 

Lateral  Trunk  Exercises 119 

Leg  raising,  alternate,  from  standing  position 110 

' '      Hanging       "        115 

double  "        115 

Leverage  as  a  factor  in  movement 18 

Literature 135 

Localization  of  movement 129 

in  Backward  bending  of  trunk 24 

"  Forward  25,  109 

"  Opposite   sitting    backward    leaning  of 

trunk 117 

' '  Standing  trunk  twisting. . . . 123 

Localization  of  muscular  contraction 130 

to  upper  erector  spinae  in  Back- 
ward bending  of  trunk 24 

in  Forward  bending  of  trunk. . .     25 
"  Fundamental     standing     po- 
sition   21,  97 

"  Opposite     sitting     backward 

leaning  of  trunk 117 

Locomotion 124 

Lumbar  spine 88- 

Muscles,  categorical  classification  of 20 

supporting  function  of 134 

Muscles  of  lower  trunk  and  hip  region 89 

' '  upper  trunk  and  shoulder  region 13 

Muscular  action  in  Fundamental  gymnastic  position 21,  98 

Neck  firm 37 

Need  and  value  of  motor  training  in  lower  trunk  and  hip  region 86-88 

Normal  relaxed  standing  position 93 

Oblique  charge 105 

Oblique  foot  placing 101 

Obliquity  of  muscular  pull  as  a  factor  in  movement 17 

Opposite  sitting  backward  leaning  of  trunk 116 

Paddling 83 

Participation  of  scapula  in  movements  of  the  arm 30 

Passive  fixation 133 

Pectorals,  action  of,  in  exercises  involving  support  on  arms 68,  79 

Placing  hands  behind  the  neck 37 

Prone  falling  position -•;/.•     76 

arm  bending  from .". .     77 

Prone  lying  position 109 

"        forward  bending  from 109 

Pull-up  over  bar,  from  Inverted  Hanging  position 65 

Rear  Vault.     See  Back  Vault 73 

Round  backed  standing  position 

Rowing 82 

Running 126 

Sacro-iliac  joint 88 

Scapular  adductors  and  depressors,  combined  action  of 33,  34,  35 

Scapular  and  shoulder  joint  muscles,  varied  action  of 16 

Scapular  movements 12 

Scapular  muscles 14 


142  INDEX 

Page 

Sheep  Vault.     See  Front  Vault 75 

Shoulder  joint  movements 12 

Shoulder  joint  muscles 14 

Side-bending  of  trunk,  standing 120 

Side  holding 122 

Side  falling  position  (side  leaning  rest) 121 

Side  lunge 102 

Side  lying  position,  and  side  bending  from 121 

Side  Vault 72 

Spine,  joints  and  movements  of 11,  88 

"      muscles  which  move 13,  89 

Squat  Vault 75 

Starting  the  swing  from  the  Hanging  position : 58 

Straddle  Vault 75 

Summary 128 

Supporting  function  of  muscles 134 

Suspension  Exercises 49 

similar  to  the  Hanging  position 51 

Trunk  movements,  importance  of 10 

Trunk  bending  backward 24 

forward 25,  108 

' '        forward-downward 26,  108 

sideways 120,  122 

twisting 105,  111,  123 

Toe-support  charge  position 106,  107 

Thief  Vault.     See  Jump  Vault 75 

Throwing 84 

Traveling  on  suspension  apparatus 51 

Traveling,  from  Cross  Rest,  on  parallel  bars 79 

Upstart  to  Front  Rest  (the  ' 'Kip' ' ) 66 

Vaults,  Horizontal 72 

"        Vertical 75 

Walking 124 


-~  T70ANDEPT 


Ren 


UOAK  DEPT. 


LD 

(C8481s 


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